imi' HMDBOOKS 


E  NEW  .IISXVMENT 


Bditedbt  OmM€<)MD.D, 


WMSmiONMMS^  COR/NTH  I ANS, 
ANQ  PHILIPP/ANS, 

EDITI-D    BY 

^JAMm  mmmA'o,  M.Ay  lid,,  wtd. 


*     MAR  30  1900      *: 


(% 


Division. .^^... 
Section  ,_...^. 
No, 


9 


34 


INTERNATIONAL   HANDBOOKS  TO   THE 
NEW   TESTAMENT. 

Edited  by  Orello  Cone,  D.D.      To  be  completed  in  four 
voUimes. 

I.     The  Synoptic  Gospels.     By  George  L.  Gary. 

/;/  press. 

II.     The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Thes- 

salonians,  etc.     By  James  Drummond. 

III.     Hebrews,  Colossians,  Ephesians,  etc.    By  Orei.lo 

Gone.     In  preparation. 

IV.     The    Fourth    Gospel,  Acts,    etc.      By    Henry  P. 

Forbes.     In  prtparation. 


INTERNATIONAL  HANDBOOKS 

TO   THE 

NEW  TESTAMENT 

By  ORELLO  cone,    D.D.,   Editor,   GEORGE    L.   GARY,   l,.H.D. 
JAMES    DRUMMOND,   LL.D.,  and  HENRY   I'.   FORBES,    D.D. 


*^ 


THE  EPISTLES 

OF 

PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

TO  THE 

THESSALONIANS,   CORINTHIANS,    GALATIANS,    ROMANS 

AND 
PHILIPPIANS 


BY 


JAMES   DRUMMOND,   M.A..  LL.I).,  Litt.D. 

Principal  of  Manchester  College,   Oxford 

Author  of  "  The  Jewish  Messiah,"  "  Philo  Judsus  " 

"Via,  Veritas,  Vita  "  (Hibbert  Lectures),  etc. 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 
^bc  IRnickerbochcr  jpress 

1899 


Copyright,  iSqg 

BY 

JAMES   DRUMMOND 
Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


tEbe  Iknkhcrbocher  Iptess,  mew  l^orh 


GENERAI.  PREFACE  TO  THE  SERIES. 

THESE  Handbooks  constitute  an  exegetical  series  cov^er- 
ing  the  entire  New  Testament  and  constructed  on  a 
plan  which  admits  of  greater  freedom  of  treatment  than  is 
usual  in  commentaries  proper.  The  space  generally  devoted 
in  commentaries  to  a  minute  examination  of  the  grammatical 
construction  of  passages  of  minor  importance  is  occupied 
with  the  discussion  of  those  of  a  special  interest  from  a  doc- 
trinal and  practical  point  of  view.  Questions  of  the  authorship 
and  date  of  the  several  books  are  treated  in  carefully-prepared 
Introductions,  and  numerous  Dissertations  are  inserted  eluci- 
dating matters  of  graver  moment. 

The  books  of  the  New  Testament  are  treated  as  a  literature 
which  in  order  to  be  understood  must  be  explained,  like  all 
other  ancient  literatures,  in  accordance  with  the  accepted 
principles  of  the  grammatical  and  historical  interpretation. 
The  aim  of  the  writers  has  been  to  ascertain  and  clearly 
set  forth  the  meaning  of  the  authors  of  these  books  by 
the  application  of  this  method  in  freedom  from  dogmatic 
prepossessions. 

The  purpose  has  been  constantly  kept  in  view  to  furnish  a 
series  of  Handbooks  to  the  New  Testament  which  should 
meet  the  wants  of  the  general  reader,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  the  results  of  the  latest  scholarship  and  of  the  most 
thorough  critical  investigation. 


vi  General  Preface  to  the  Series 

Accordingly,  more  prominence  has  been  given  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  results  of  the  critical  processes  than  to  the  presen- 
tation of  the  details  of  these  processes  by  means  of  extended 
discussions  of  questions  of  Greek  grammar,  philology,  and 
exegesis.  Hence,  while  the  advanced  student  will  find  much 
to  interest  him  in  these  volumes,  it  is  believed  that  ministers 
who  have  not  the  time  to  occupy  themselves  with  the  refine- 
ments of  minute  hermeneutics,  superintendents  and  teachers 
of  Sunday-schools,  and  Bible-students  in  general  will  find 
them  suited  to  their  needs.  The  text  used  is  that  of  the  Re- 
vised Version,  although  for  the  purpose  of  saving  space  the 
text  has  not  been  printed,  and  the  passages  explained  have 
been  indicated  in  part  by  references  only  and  in  part  by 
references  together  with  a  few  initial  words. 

The  Editor. 


PREFACE. 

OF  the  inadequacy  of  the  present  little  commentary  no 
one  can  be  more  painfully  aware  than  the  author.  It 
has  been  my  endeavour  to  follow  the  plan  laid  down  for  this 
series  of  Hand-books,  and  present  an  exposition  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  those  who  have  sufficient  interest  in  theology  to 
wish  for  a  fuller  understanding  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  and 
yet  not  enough  technical  scholarship  to  draw  them  to  the 
larger  commentaries  on  the  Greek  text.  The  limits  neces- 
•sarily  imposed  upon  the  work  have  obliged  me  to  pass  over 
many  topics  wliich  arise  in  connection  with  the  Epistles,  but 
are  not  absolutely  necessary  for  the  elucidation  of  their 
meaning,  and  to  make  only  a  brief  reference  to  several  dis- 
cussions which  would  have  required  ample  space  for  their 
.satisfactory  treatment. 

For  the  illustration  of  particular  points  I  have  freely  availed 
myself  of  Wehefs /Mzsc/ie  Theologie.  The  conservatism  of 
rabbinical  teaching  may  render  it  probable  that  views  which 
are  found  only  in  the  later  literature  represent  correctly  the 
opinions  of  an  earlier  time  ;  but  they  ought  to  be  used  with 
caution,  and  they  are  quoted  only  as  expressive  of  the  Jewish 
tone  of  mind,  and  illustrative  of  the  Apostle's  thought,  not 
as  necessarily  indicative  of  the  source  from  which  that 
thought  was  derived,  or  from  which  it  was  an  intentional 
deviation. 

By  the  kind  permission  of  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  the  commentary  is  ba.sed  on  the  text  of  the 
English  Revised  Version,  which  the  reader  is  .suppo.sed   to 


viii  PREFACE 

have  open  before  him,  and  the  accuracy  of  that  translation  is 
assumed  wherever  it  has  not  appeared  to  be  sufficiently  in 
error  to  call  for  remark.  The  use  of  Greek  has  been  for  the 
most  part  avoided  ;  but  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  use 
it  in  the  discussion  of  some  of  the  more  difficult  and  contro- 
verted passages.  These  more  technical  discussions  have 
been  printed  in  small  type,  and  may  be  passed  over  by  any 
reader  who  would  find  them  too  exacting.  The  bulk  of  the 
material  contained  in  them,  however,  may  be  understood  even 
by  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  Greek.  I  have  also 
occasionally  introduced  into  foot-notes  parallels  in  Greek 
which  have  struck  me  in  the  course  of  \\\y  reading. 

It  ought  to  be  needless  to  add  that  this  commentary  has 
not  been  written  in  the  interest  of  an}^  sect  or  any  particular 
school  of  thought  ;  and  however  widely  I  may  dissent  here 
and  there  from  current  interpretations,  it  has  been  my  simple 
endeavour  to  find  out,  by  faithful  study,  the  real  meaning 
of  the  Apostle.  But  that  a  mind  so  transcendent  meant 
many  things  which  have  not  yet  been  discovered,  or  that 
some  others  may  have  penetrated  farther  into  his  thought 
than  has  been  permitted  to  me  to  do,  I  can  readily  believe. 
Such  as  it  is,  I  send  forth  this  volume  in  the  earnest  hope 
that  it  may  contribute  something  to  the  furtherance  of 
Christian  truth,  and  the  quickening  of  spiritual  life  in  the 
readers. 

Jame;s  Drummond. 

Oxt'ORD,  December,  189S. 


CONTENTS. 


THR  EPISTLES  TO  THE  THESSAT.ONIANS. 

Introduction.     The  First  Epistle 

The  Second  Epistle    . 
First  The.ssai,onians.     Analysis 

Commentary  . 
Second  ThkSSALonians.     Analysis     . 
Commentary 

THE  EPISTLES  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 


I 
6 

15 
17 
33 
35 


Introduction.     The  First  Epistle 43 

The  Second  Epistle 4''^ 

First  Corinthians.    Analysis 55 

Commentarj' 59 

Second  Corinthians.     Analysis i33 

Commentary  .         .         .         •         -135 

THE  e;pistle  to  THIv  GALATIANS. 

Introduction ^^9 

GalaTians.     Analysis             ^93 

Commentary               .         .         .         •         •         •         •  '95 

THE  EPIvSTLB:  to  the  ROMANS. 

Introduction ...  243 

Romans.     Analysis 247 

Commentary  .         .         .         .         .         •         •         -251 

EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHHJPPIANS. 

Introduction 355 

Phiijppians.     Analysis 3^1 

Commentary            .....••  3^3 


THE  EPISTLES  TO  THE 
THESSALONIANS'. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE   FIRST   EPISTLE. 

ACCORDING  to  the  most  probable  opinion,  Paul's  corre- 
spondence began  at  Corinth  during  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey.  He  and  Silas  had  been  driven  out  of 
Thessalonica  by  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  who,  unable  to 
find  them,  had  dragged  Jason  and  some  of  the  brethren  be- 
fore the  magistrates  on  a  charge  of  treason.  This  persecu- 
tion, apparently  successful  in  its  primary  object,  would 
naturally  be  continued,  and  the  Jews  would  do  their  best  to 
stamp  out  the  incipient  church.  Allusion  is  made  to  these 
circumstances  in  i  Thessalonians  i.,  6,  and  ii.,  14,  and  iii., 
3  and  4.  The  First  Epistle  was  written  to  defend  the 
Christian  preachers  against  calumnious  attacks,  probably 
emanating  from  unbelieving  Jews  ;  to  comfort  the  brethren 
under  their  afflictions  ;  to  reassure  them  about  those  who 
"had  fallen  asleep"  before  the  coming  of  the  Lord;  to 
correct  certain  abuses  (such  as  an  inclination  to  heathen 
licentiousness,  and  to  a  fussy  idleness,  springing  perhaps 
from  an  expectation  of  the  immediate  coming  of  Christ);  and, 

'  For  an  account  of  Thessalonica  and  tbe  founding  of  the  church 
there  see  the  Commentary  on  Acts,  or  any  of  the  standard  Lives  of 
Paul. 


2  INTRODUCTION 

finally,  to  exhort  believers  to  live  in  a  manner  worthy  of  their 
faith,  showing  a  becoming  conduct  towards  those  without, 
and  following  that  which  was  good  both  towards  one  another 
and  towards  all  men.  It  is  evident  that  a  considerable 
period,  at  least  several  months,  must  have  elapsed  since 
Paul's  visit ;  for  the  Thessalonian  disciples  had  become  an 
example  to  all  the  believers  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia,' 
and  had  shown  their  brotherly  love  towards  ' '  all  the  brethren 
in  the  whole  of  Macedonia."  ^  Such  expressions  need  not 
be  too  closely  pressed  ;  but  there  must  have  been  several 
little  churches  in  the  latter  country,  and  some  in  Achaia, 
before  any  writer  could  think  of  using  them.  A  similar  in- 
dication, though  less  decisive,  is  afforded  by  ii.,  i8,  where 
Paul  speaks  of  his  repeated,  though  ineffectual,  desire  to 
visit  the  Thes.salonians,  and  by  iv.,  13,  where  he  alludes  to 
those  who  had  died  since  the  formation  of  the  church. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  Epistle  was  written  after 
Paul  had  been  for  some  time  in  Corinth.  Other  allusions 
forbid  us  to  place  it  later.  According  to  Acts,^  Paul  ex- 
pected Silas  and  Timothy  to  join  him  at  Athens,  but  the 
author  only  relates  that  they  came  to  him  in  Corinth.* 
Now  the  Epistle  ^  informs  us  that  Paul  was  so  anxious  for 
news  that  he  decided  to  be  left  alone  at  Athens,  and  sent 
Timothy  to  confirm  the  believers  in  their  faith ;  and  when 
Timothy  returned  bringing  a  good  report,  he  was  greatly 
comforted.  Here  Silas  is  not  mentioned,  and  it  is  evident 
that  he  was  not  with  Paul  at  Athens  ;  but  as  the  Epistle  is 
from  "Paul  and  Silvanus  and  Timothy"  it  is  apparent 
that  he  must  have  rejoined  his  party  afterwards.  These 
facts  admit  of  easy  reconciliation  if  we  suppose  that  Timothy, 
according  to  Paul's  direction,  hastened  to  him  at  Athens, 
while  Silas  for  some  reason  remained  behind  at  Beroea  ;  that 
Paul  then  despatched  Timothy  to  Thessalonica  ;  and  that 
finally  the  latter,  on  his  way  back,  picked  up  Silas,  and  with 

'i.,  7.        ''iv.,  9,  10.        •''xvii.,  15.         *xviii.,  5.  *iii.,  \  sq. 


FIRST  THESSALONIANS  3 

liim  followed  Paul  to  Corinth.  The  letter  was  probably 
written  soon  afterwards.  If  these  considerations  be  valid, 
the  Epistle  must  be  dated  about  the  year  53  according  to  the 
usual  chronology,  or  perhaps  a  few  years  earlier.' 

The  genuineness  of  this  Epistle  was  not,  .so  far  as  I  know, 
called  in  question  till  modern  times,  when  it  was  attacked  by 
Baur.  It  was  accepted  by  Marcion  as  well  as  by  the  Catholic 
Church  ;  and  though  the  testimonies  to  it  are  not  very  early, 
still  it  was  in  general  circulation  at  a  time  when  the  old  men 
at  Thessalonica  must  have  known  pretty  well  whether  it  was 
geiuiine  or  not.  In  this  respect  a  letter  addressed  to  a 
particular  church  is  in  a  very  different  position  from  one 
written  either  to  a  private  individual  or  to  an  indefinite  group 
of  churches.  It  must  have  been  publicly  known  whether 
an  epistle  had  come  down  among  the  cherished  possessions 
of  a  congregation  or  was  newly  foisted  in  from  some  un- 
known quarter.  This  consideration  seems  to  me  to  lend 
great  additional  strength  to  the  external  evidence  of  the 
genuineness  of  most  of  the  Pauline  Epistles.  We  must, 
however,  briefly  notice  the  principal  objections  which  are 
urged  in  the  present  instance. 

In  energy  of  style  and  power  of  thought  the  Ivpistle  is  un- 
doubtedly inferior  to  Romans,  Corinthians,  and  Galatians. 
But  then  a  writer  is  not  always  at  his  highest  level.  When 
the  great  Epistles  were  written,  not  otdy  was  Paul's  mind 
more  mature,  and  his  experience  among  churches  and  parties 
greatly  enlarged,  but  he  was  roused  to  the  vigorous  exercise 
of  his  finest  gifts  by  controversy,  and  by  deep  pondering  on 
the  various  problems  which  were  forcing  themselves  on  the 
attention  of  Christendom.  At  an  earlier  period  he  wrote  out 
of  an  affectionate  solicitude,  and  was  not  concerned  with  any 

'  It  is  impossible  to  discuss  in  this  brief  commentary  the  chronology 
of  Paul's  life.  Able  scholars  have  recently  thrown  back  the  accepted 
dates  a  few  years.  This  change  makes  no  difference  in  the  sitrnificance 
of  the  Epistles,  and  therefore  does  not  greatly  concern  the  interpreter 


4  INTRODUCTION 

question  which  severely  taxed  his  thought.  The  style  cor- 
responds with  this  more  equable  frame  of  mind  ;  but  we  can 
observe  the  same  warm  heart,  confident  faith,  elevated  spir- 
ituality, and  balanced  judgment  as  in  the  greater  Epistles. 

The  expectation  of  the  second  coming '  is  expressed  in 
greater  detail,  and  I  think  I  must  frankly  add  with  greater 
crudity,  here  than  elsewhere.  But  though  this  expectation 
may  have  been  modified,  and  lost  some  of  its  Jewish  features, 
in  the  course  of  time,  it  is  distinctly  present  in  other  Epistles. 
Even  in  the  grand  chapter  on  the  resurrection  in  i  Cor- 
inthians we  are  told  that  we  shall  not  all  sleep,  but  we  shall 
all  be  changed,  showing  that  the  Apostle  still  included  him- 
self among  the  possible  survivors  at  the  second  advent,  and 
reference  is  even  made  to  the  "  last  trumpet,"  which  shall 
summon  the  dead  to  rise.^  Therefore,  although  we  may 
wish  that  our  Apostle  had  been  infallible,  and  had  not  been 
so  possessed  with  an  idea  which  to  us  must  appear  ground- 
less, and  indicative  of  a  certain  degree  of  blind  enthusiasm, 
we  cannot  regard  the  enunciation  of  this  belief  as  any  argu- 
ment against  the  genuineness  of  the  writing  in  which  it 
occurs.  We  must  learn  to  accept  the  revelations  of  God 
upon  His  own  conditions.  We  say  we  must  have  something 
infallible,  or  we  will  recognise  nothing  Divine  about  it ;  He 
gives  us  truth  hemmed  in  by  human  limitation,  and  leaves 
something  to  our  own  experience  and  spiritual  wisdom. 
Paul  himself  said  that  we  have  our  treasure  in  earthen 
vessels,  and  that  knowledge  must  pass  away  ;  but  that  is 
a  truth  which  men  are  always  unwilling  to  accept.  Before 
leaving  the  subject  of  the  second  coming  we  must  observe 
that  the  description  of  it  contains  an  expression  which  has 
very  properly  been  urged  as  an  evidence  of  genuineness. 
No  forger  in  the  post- apostolic  time  would  have  ascribed  to 
Paul  a  belief  that  he  would  survive  to  witness  the  grand 
consummation.' 

'  iv.,  13  sqq.  «  xv.,  51,  52.  ^  jy,^  15-17. 


FIRST  THESSALONIANS  5 

A  more  particular  objection  is  founded  on  the  statement 
made  in  reference  to  the  Jews,  "  The  wrath  came  upon  them 
to  the  uttermost."  '  This,  it  is  said,  must  refer  to  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  There  is  another  reading,  "has 
come."  If  we  could  regard  the  latter  as  correct,  it  would 
relieve  the  difficulty,  for  at  the  time  when  the  Epistle  was 
written,  society  was  becoming  demoralised  iu  Palestine  ;  the 
fanatical  champions  of  revolt  were  gaining  complete  ascend- 
ency ;  and  it  was  growing  more  and  more  evident  that 
Rome  would  have  to  assert  its  power,  and  crush  the  ris- 
ing anarchy  with  a  strong  hand.  But  the  perfect  tense  has 
such  scanty  support  that  we  are  obliged  to  accept  the  other 
readiiig,"  and  this  properly  points  to  some  definite  event. 
It  is  suggested  that  it  is  used  in  a  prophetic  sense,  the  past 
denoting  the  certainty  of  fulfilment,  or  pointing  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  Divine  purpose.  I  confess  this  does  not 
appear  to  me  very  satisfactory,  and  I  would  suggest  that 
possibly  one  of  the  miserable  riots  under  the  procuratorship 
of  Cumanus  made  a  deep  impression  on  Paul's  mind,  and  is 
referred  to  by  him  in  the  present  passage.'  If  these  ex- 
planations be  thought  unsatisfactory,  and  reference  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  seem  more  probable,  then  we  may 
regard  the  statement  as  an  editorial  comment,  rather  than 
allow  that  it  proves  the  spuriousness  of  the  whole  Epistle.* 
It  is  generally  admitted,  even  by  followers  of  the  Tiibingen 
school,  that  the  adverse  criticism  has  broken  down,  and  that 
the  Epistle  must  be  accepted  as  Paul's. 

'  ii.,  16. 

'Weiss,  however,  retains  the  perfect  tense,  and  supposes  that  the 
"wrath"  was  shown  in  the  judicial  hardening  of  the  people  [The 
Avicrican  Journal  of  Theology,  i.,  p.  333,  and  Die  panlinischen 
Brie/e,  p.  4S1  sq.). 

^  See  Josephus,  Ant.,  xx.,  v.,  3-vi.,  -3.  Cumanus  was  procurator 
A.D.  48-52. 

*  In  this  case  might  it  possibly  be  borrowed  from  The  Testamen  ts  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  Levi,  6,  hf/iaCf  de  r)  oiivr)  uvjiiov  kit  avrov<i 
eii  reXoi,  instead  of  the  latter  being  dependent  on  Paul  ? 


6  INTR  OD  UC  TION 

THE  SECOND  EPISTLE. 
The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  bears,  like  the 
First,  the  names  of  Paul  and  Silvanus  and  Timothy. 
This  fact  at  once  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it  was  written  not 
long  after  the  First,  while  the  three  men  were  still  together 
at  Corinth.  The  remaining  contents  of  the  Epistle  are  quite 
consistent  with  this  hypothesis.'  Its  general  structure  and 
the  tenor  of  its  teaching  are  similar  to  those  of  the  First 
Epistle  ;  but  some  points  are  dwelt  upon  at  greater  length, 
or  more  strongly  emphasised.  Certain  persons  were  dis- 
turbing the  minds  of  the  community  by  saying  that  the  day 
of  the  L,ord  was  already  present.  They  apparently  professed 
to  know  this  through  some  spiritual  revelation  or  through 
an  epistle  of  Paul's^  ;  and  probably  in  consequence  of  such 
teaching  the  inclination  to  neglect  one's  work,  and  live  with- 
out regard  to  the  regular  order  of  society,  had  increased,  and 
required  detailed  admonition.'  It  seems  at  first  sight  very 
strange  that  anyone  could  maintain  this  position,  but  we 
may  connect  it  with  an  equally  curious  assertion,  referred 
to  in  2  Timothy,*  that  the  resurrection  had  already  taken 
place.  Such  statements  could  be  maintained  only  by  giving 
them  a  spiritual,  or  rather  a  metaphorical  interpretation. 
We  can  easily  imagine  some  enthusiasts  declaring  that  the 
Christian  Church  was  itself  the  kingdom  of  the  Lord,  and 
that  therefore  the  day  of  the  Lord  had  come  with  its  estab- 
lishment, that  the  old  order  of  society  was  thereby  dissolved, 
and  Christians  were  under  no  obligation  to  observe  its  rules. 
On  its  more  spiritual  side  we  can  sympathise  with  this 
position,  and  think  it  nearer  to  the  real  facts  of  life  than 
Paul's  apocalyptic  views.  Nevertheless,  its  apparent  spiritu- 
ality was  counterfeit,  and  led  to  immoral  results  ;  and  we  see 
the  superiority  of  Paul  in  the  fact  that  while  he  accepted  so 

'  The  allusion  iu  iii.,  2,  to  a  persecution  against  Paul  himself  may  be 

explained  by  a  reference  to  Acts  xviii.,  12  sqq. 
^ii.,  2.  ^iii.,  6  sqq.  ''ii.,  18. 


SECOND  THESSALONIANS  7 

much  of  the  visionary  behef  of  Judaism,  he  never  allowed  it 
to  disturb  his  sense  of  present  moral  relations,  but  used  it  to 
quicken  and  elevate  the  life  of  men  in  this  common,  work- 
ing-day world.  Thus  we  learn  that  it  is  possible  to  be  nearer 
to  material  fact,  and  yet  farther  from  spiritual  truth  ;  to  have 
more  knowledge  and  less  wisdom.  In  saying  this  I  am  as- 
suming that  Paul's  eschatology  was  mistaken,  a  survival 
from  his  rabbinical  days— filled  indeed  with  Christian  mean- 
ing, but  destined  to  pass  away  under  the  teachings  of  history. 
Alford,  I  suppose,  gives  expression  to  a  common  view  when 
he  says  :  ''Have  we,  in  any  sense,  God  speaking  i7i  the  Bible, 
or  have  we  not  f  If  we  have, — then  of  all  passages,  it  is  in 
these  which  treat  so  confidently  of  futurity,  that  we  must 
recognize  His  voice  :  if  we  have  it  not  in  these  passages,  then 
where  are  we  to  listen  for  it  at  all  ?  "  '  The  answer,  however 
little  it  is  seen  through  the  veil  which  lies  upon  the  heart  of 
Christendom,  is  almost  too  obvious, — in  i  Corinthians  xiii., 
in  Romans  xii.,  in  the  Beatitudes,  in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  and  numerous  other  passages  which  find  an  answer  in 
the  conscience  and  the  heart.  It  is  assumed  that  the  inspira- 
tion of  Apostles  can  have  no  analogy  in  us,  and  that,  there- 
fore, we  must  seek  it  most  in  those  things  which  to  us  are 
impenetrable  mystery,  while  the  oracles  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
consecrated  souls  are  to  be  set  aside  as  common  things,  which 
bear  no  witness  to  the  operation  of  God.  Thus  the  grandest 
and  clearest  truths  of  the  Gospel  are  neglected  as  within  the 
range  of  uninspired  humanity,  and  men  have  sought  for  God 
where  least  He  is  to  be  found,  amid  fantastic  interpretations 
and  apocalyptic  dreams. 

The  genuineness  of  Second  Thessalonians  has  been  more 
extensively  questioned  than  that  of  the  First  E)pistle.  Baur, 
believing  that  "the  man  of  sin", must  refer  to  Nero,  who 
was  expected  to  return  and  play  the  part  of  Anti-Christ,  and 
that  the  "one  that  restraineth  "   was  Vespasian,   places  it 

'Greek  Test.,  2ud  edition,  iii.,  p.  64. 


8  INTRODUCTION 

soon  after  the  death  of  Galba,  probably  in  the  year  70.  It 
was  thus,  according  to  him,  written  before  the  First  Epistle, 
which,  in  his  view,  refers  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
The  objections  of  Baur  have  been  frequently  answered  ;  but 
even  so  judicious  a  critic  as  Weizsacker  rejects  the  Epistle, 
mainly  on  the  ground  that  it  is  too  obviously  an  imitation 
of  the  First.'  Those  who  look  at  the  problems  of  early 
Christianity  from  my  own  point  of  view  could  not  be  sorry 
to  relieve  Paul  of  an  Epistle  which  has  no  permanent  spirit- 
ual value,  and  presents  so  strongly  a  very  questionable 
apocalypse.  Nevertheless  the  weight  of  argument  seems  to 
me  to  incline  in  favour  of  its  genuineness.  The  external 
attestation,  though  not  of  the  earliest  or  strongest  kind,  is 
nevertheless,  as  we  have  seen,  not  to  be  lightly  set  aside. 
Are  Weizsacker' s  reasons  sufficient  to  establish  a  charge  of 
forgery  ?  He  points  out  the  fact  that  both  in  its  general 
structure  and  in  passage  after  passage  the  Second  Epistle 
presents  striking  parallels  to  the  First.  With  this  is  com- 
bined the  further  alleged  fact  that  much  of  the  language 
and  style  is  unpauline.  Such  appearances  always  admit  of 
two  explanations,  and  it  seems  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
rule  of  judgment  to  which  criticism  is  bound  to  conform,  and 
by  which  it  must  correct  the  aberrations  of  individual  im- 
pression. You  may  say  that  the  imitator  betrays  himself  at 
once  by  his  success  and  his  failure,  or  you  may  say  that  the 
author  naturally  repeats  the  same  sentiments  in  similar  cir- 
cumstances, but  varies  the  expression.  Now,  if  the  Epistle 
be  genuine,  it  would  appear  to  have  been  written  in  order  to 
correct  certain  errors  in  regard  to  the  second  coming.  This 
being  the  case,  it  would  be  quite  natural  for  Paul,  writing 
perhaps  only  a  few  weeks  later,  to  follow  the  same  vein  of 
thought  as  in  the  First  Epistle,  only  enlarging  on  certain 
points  which  required  particular  attention.  Thus,  in  the 
First  Epistle,  he  exhorts  his  readers  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do 

'  The  Apostolic  Age,  i.,  p.  295  sqq.  (traus.). 


SECOND  THESSALONIANS  9 

their  own  work,  as  he  had  desired  them.'  This  is  explained 
by  the  fuller  statement  of  the  Second  Epistle.  He  had  heard 
that  certain  persons  were  neglecting  their  work,  and  living 
in  a  disorderly  way  ;  and  he  enjoins  on  such  persons  to  do 
their  work  quietly  and  eat  their  own  bread,  reminding  them 
how  he  had  laid  down  the  rule  when  he  was  with  them,  that 
if  a  man  would  not  work  he  should  not  eat.  "^  In  connection 
with  this  there  is  another  allusion  which  seems  to  me  unlike 
the  work  of  a  forger.  In  the  First  Epistle,  in  quite  a  differ- 
ent connection,  Paul  reminds  his  readers  of  his  life  among 
them,  and,  along  with  other  things,  mentions  how  he  worked 
day  and  night  that  he  might  not  be  burdensome  to  any  of 
them.'  There  is  no  very  apparent  reason  for  his  dwelling 
on  this  fact.  If  the  Second  Epistle  be  his,  it  is  evident  that 
he  was  giving  his  readers  a  gentle  and  kindly  hint,  which 
he  expected  them  to  understand  ;  for  he  there  repeats  the 
statement  almost  in  the  same  words,*  but  brings  it  into  im- 
mediate connection  with  the  idle  busybodies.  He  then  adds 
a  reason  which  Weizsacker  says  is  quite  different  from  any 
that  Paul  gives  elsewhere  :  he  and  his  companions  did  this 
that  they  might  make  themselves  an  example  for  the  imita- 
tion of  the  disciples.  Weizsacker  has  not  pointed  out  that 
this  is  only  an  added  reason  ;  the  other,  that  they  should 
not  be  burdensome  to  anyone,  is  given  first.  But  how  ex- 
actly in  place  is  the  added  reason  here.  Paul's  leading  pur- 
pose, no  doubt,  in  working  for  his  own  livelihood,  was  to 
maintain  his  independence,  and  spare  the  resources  of  his 
disciples  ;  but  it  may  \^\y  well  have  been  a  secondary  con- 
sideration that  in  so  doing  he  was  setting  a  good  example 
to  those  who  might  be  tempted  to  trade  upon  the  Gospel,  or 
to  give  themselves  up  to  an  idle  excitement,  for  we  know 
that  Paul  considered  his  own  conduct  to  be  worthy  of 
imitation.' 

'iv.,ii.  'iii.,  lOJ^y.  'ii.,  9-  ''iii.,8. 

*  See  1  Thess.  i.,  6;  i  Cor.  iv.,  16,  xi.,  i  ;  Phil,  iii.,  17. 


lo  INTRODUCTION 

Much  will  depend  on  the  interpretation  which  we  give 
to  the  passage  about  the  man  of  sin.  It  is  alleged  that  the 
views  here  expressed  contradict  tliose  of  the  First  Epistle,  in 
putting  off  the  coming  of  the  Lord  to  an  indefinite  future. 
But  this  allegation  depends  on  a  misunderstanding  of  a 
word  in  ii.,  2,  which  is  translated  in  the  Authorised  Version 
by  the  phrase  "is  at  hand, ' '  but  is  corrected  by  the  Re- 
vised Version  into  "is  now  present."  In  this  Epistle, 
as  in  the  First,  Paul  clearly  believes  that  the  second 
coming  is  not  far  off.  His  mind  is  so  full  of  it  that  it  is 
made  a  special  ground  of  exhortation ;  and  it  is  still 
"  we  "  who  are  to  be  gathered  together  to  Christ.'  This, 
I  think,  is  against  the  idea  of  forgery.  A  writer  in  the 
post-apostolic  age  would  have  represented  Paul  as  putting 
off  the  appearance  of  Christ  till  after  his  own  time,  and 
would  not  have  said  that  the  mystery  of  lawlessness  was 
already  working,  and  was  only  delayed  by  some  indi- 
vidual who  restrained  until  he  was  taken  out  of  the  way. 
According  to  the  Epistle,  Paul  had  spoken  of  these  things 
while  he  was  at  Thessalonica.  The  same  details  are  not 
given  in  the  First  Epistle  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  contradict 
them,  and  it  appears  incidentally  that  Paul  had  included  the 
second  coming  in  his  oral  teaching,  for  he  says  that  the 
readers  know  that  the  day  of  the  lyord  comes  as  a  thief  in 
the  night.'  This  is  quite  an  incidental  agreement.  As  to 
the  substance  of  his  doctrine,  we  may  observe  that  the  tv/o 
Epistles  are  in  harmony  in  postponing  the  advent  to  an 
indefinite,  though  not  distant  future,  and  that  the  "sudden 
destruction  "  of  the  First  ^  answers  to  the  "  eternal  destruc- 
tion," and  the  "slay"  and  "bring  to  nought,"  of  the 
Second." 

If,  however,  it  could  be  shown  that  the  man  of  sin  was 
Nero,  and  that  there  was  an  allusion  here  to  his  supposed 
return  from  the  East  to  play  the  part  of  Anti-Christ,  the 

'  ii„  I.  ^  v.,  2.  2  v.,  3.  ''  i.,  9  ;  "v  8. 


SFXOND  THESSALONIANS  ii 

late  origin  of  the  Epistle  would  be  proved.  But  in  fact  the 
idea  of  an  Anti-Christ,  who  should  lead  the  forces  of  iniquity 
in  their  last  assault,  was  Jewish,  and  there  is  not  a  single 
feature  in  the  man  of  sin,  as  here  portrayed,  to  identify  him 
with  Nero.  The  passage  is  of  course  exceedingly  obscure, 
and  one  of  its  difficulties  is  the  absence  of  any  clear  motive 
for  Paul's  declining  to  write  down  what  he  appears  to  have 
taught  plainly  by  word  of  mouth.  Still  it  is  susceptible 
of  a  hypothetical  explanation  which  suits  the  supposed  time 
and  circumstances  of  the  Epistle.  In  i  Thessalonians  ii., 
14-16,  the  Apostle  uses  very  strong  language  in  regard  to 
the  opposition  and  wickedness  of  the  Jews.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  the  man  of  sin  is  the  apocalyptic  leader  of 
Jewi.sh  apostasy.  He  is  to  sit  in  the  Temple  of  God,  which 
must  probabl}'  mean  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  and  is  to  take 
upon  himself  the  authority  of  God.  Paul  had  already  had 
bitter  experience  of  the  mystery  of  Jewish  defection,  and  it 
seemed  to  him  that  the  zeal  of  his  countrymen  for  the  letter 
of  the  Law  was  only  sinking  them  deeper  into  lawlessness. 
The  delay  in  the  final  outbreak  of  their  fanaticism  was  due 
to  some  restraining  power,  "  that  which  restraineth,"  '  and 
this  power  was  represented  by  a  person,  "one  that  re- 
straineth." ^  This  may  be  the  Roman  swaj-  wielded  by  the 
Emperor.  Judaea  and  Rome  were  now  in  fierce  antagonism, 
and  the  violence  of  zealots  was  held  in  check  only  by  the 
heavy  hand  of  military  force.  Paul  ma^^  have  thought,  in 
these  enthusiastic  moments,  that  heathenism  must  shortly 
crumble  to  pieces,  and  then  the  stage  would  be  clear  for  the 
final  conflict  between  good  and  evil.  To  write  plainly  of  the 
removal  of  an  Emperor  might  be  easily  construed  into  a 
charge  of  treason,  and  he  therefore  expressed  himself  in 
language  which  was  clear  only  to  those  who  were  in  posses- 
sion of  the  key.     I  do  not  say  that'  this  view  is  undoubtedly 

'  ii.,  6.  '  ii.,  7. 


ti  INTRODUCTION 

correct,  or  in  all  respects  satisfactory  ;  but  it  is  at  least  as 
good  as  those  which  suggest  a  later  time. 

The  only  other  objection  which  we  need  notice  is  founded 
on  the  words  in  iii.,  17,  "The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with 
mine  own  hand,  which  is  the  token  in  every  epistle  :  so  I 
write."  Here  two  points  are  dwelt  upon  :  it  is  said  that  in 
the  second  epistle  which  he  ever  wrote,  Paul  could  not  have 
referred  to  the  token  in  "  every  "  epistle  ;  and  that  he  could 
have  had  no  occasion  to  warn  his  readers  against  forgeries 
by  calling  attention  to  his  autograph.  But  we  cannot  be 
sure  that  Paul  had  not  already'  written  several  letters  which 
have  not  been  preserved.  Such  communications  may  have 
been  short  and  of  minor  importance,  and  therefore  allowed 
to  perish  ;  and  even  if  they  were  very  few  they  would  have 
established  the  practice  of  correspondence,  and  justified  the 
Apostle  in  referring  to  "every  epistle."  In  regard  to  a 
suggestion  of  possible  forgery,  we  must  observe  that  this 
subject  is  touched  upon  in  another  part  of  the  Epistle.' 
According  to  the  most  obvious  interpretation,  it  would  seem 
that  the  erroneous  views  about  the  second  coming  were  sup- 
ported by  an  appeal  to  some  epistle  wrongly  ascribed  to 
Paul.  Whether  there  really  was  such  a  letter  is  not  very 
clear.  It  is  contended  with  some  force  that  Paul  would 
have  expressed  himself  with  indignation  against  an  actual 
forgery,  and  accordingly  some  think  that  he  refers  only  to 
a  misunderstanding  of  the  First  Epistle.  But  perhaps  the 
difficulty  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  suggestion  that 
there  was  a  vague  rumour  that  a  letter  had  come  from  Paul 
containing  the  incriminated  doctrine.  This  assumption  may 
have  arisen  out  of  a  misunderstanding  of  the  First  Epistle, 
and  then  have  created  an  impression  that  another  one  had 
been  received.  Thus  without  the  improbable  supposition 
of  an  actual  forgery  there  would  be  adequate  reason  for 
Paul's   slight  and   passing  allusions,   which  seem  to  point 

'  ii.,  2. 


SECOND  T/IESSALONIANS  13 

more  to  a  possibility  than  a  fact.  On  the  other  hand,  such 
vague  allusions,  which  are  quite  independent  of  one  another, 
and  yet  mutually  explanatory,  are  not  like  the  work  of  a 
forger.  Still  less  can  we  believe  that  a  forger  would  have 
committed  himself  to  the  statement  in  iii.,  17.  He  would 
naturally  have  noticed  what  Paul's  real  usage  was,  and 
have  conformed  his  statement  to  the  apparent  facts.  Now 
the  words,  "The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with  mine  own 
hand,"  occur  in  i  Corinthians  xvi.,  21,  and  Colossians  iv., 
18,  and  in  no  other  Epistle.  In  Galatians  Paul  speaks  of 
having  written  with  his  own  hand ;  but  the  remaining 
Epistles  give  no  indication  of  the  kind.  It  therefore  seems 
altogether  unlikely  that  a  forger  would  have  sought  to 
authenticate  his  work  by  a  statement  which  was  so  ob- 
viously not  borne  out  b}^  the  facts.  But  if  Paul  wrote  the 
words,  they  express  his  intention  ;  and  this  intention  was 
satisfactorily  fulfilled  if  he  always  added  the  benediction  in 
his  own  handwriting. 

On  the  whole,  then,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  subject  and 
its  treatment  suit  best  the  time  and  circumstances  of  Pauline 
authorship,  and  the  very  passages  which  are  relied  upon  as 
an  evidence  of  forgery  are  more  surprising  from  a  fo'ger 
than  from  Paul.  The  argument  from  language  and  style  is 
not  such  as  to  require  special  notice  in  this  summary  state- 
ment ;  for  it  may  be  applied  in  either  direction  according  to 
the  bias  of  the  critic.  When  the  forces  are  pretty  evenly 
balanced,  tradition,  that  is  to  say,  the  general  opinion  of 
people  living  nearest  to  the  time  of  composition,  assumes  its 
natural  authority  ;  and  I  must  therefore  accept  the  Epistle, 
at  least  provisionally,  as  genuine. 


FIRST  THESSALONIANS. 


ANALYSIS. 
Address  and  greeting,  i.,  i. 
I.    Thankfui,   and  defensive  AI.I.USIONS  TO  The  preaching 

AMONG  THE  ThESSAI^ONIANS,  AND  THEIR  RECEPTION  OF 
THE  GosPEiy,  i.,  2-iii.,  13. 

1.  Thanksgiving  for  the  faith  and  love  of  the  Thessalonians,  and 

their  manner  of  receiving  the  Gospel,  i.,  2-10. 

2.  Defensive  statement  of  the  way  in  which  Paul  and  his  com- 

panions preached  and  lived  among  them,  ii.,  1-12. 

3.  Thanksgiving  for  their  reception   of  the  Gospel  in  spite  of 

persecutions,  ii.,  13-16. 

4.  Paul's  wish  to  visit  them,  which  was  frustrated,  ii.,  17-20. 

5.  Account  of  the  mission  of  Timothy,  and  its  results,  iii.,  i-io. 

6.  A  prayer  for  their  continuance  in  holiness,  iii.,  1 1-13. 

II.    Exhortations  and  doctrines,  iv.,  i-v.,  22. 

1.  Exhortations,  iv.,  1-12  :  a.  To  purity,  1-8;  b.  To  mutual  love, 

and  to  becoming  conduct  towards  the  outside  world,  9-12. 

2.  Doctrine  of  the  last  things,  iv.,   13-v.,  11  :    a.    The  dead  in 

Christ  shall  rise  at  his  coming,  and  description  of  his  com- 
ing, iv.,  13-18  ;  b.  The  uncertainty  of  the  time,  and  the 
need  of  constant  vigilance  and  sobriety,  v.,  i-ii. 

3.  Various  exhortations,  v.,  12-22. 

CONCI^USION.  Prayer  for  their  sanctificatiou  ;  pray  for  us  ;  salute 
the  brethren  ;  see  that  the  Epistle  be  read  ;  closing  bene- 
diction, v.,  23-28. 


15 


FIRST  THESSALONIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

THE  Epistle  opens  with  an  address  and  greeting,  which  is 
here  given  in  its  shortest  and  simplest  form  (i.,  i). 
Paul  does  not  describe  himself  as  an  Apostle,  probably  on 
account  of  the  informal  and  affectionate  character  of  the  let- 
ter. The  same  peculiarity  is  observed  in  the  Second  Epistle, 
in  Philippians  and  Philemon.  The  union  with  himself  of 
Silvanus  and  Timothy  does  not  affect  the  Pauline  author- 
ship, which  is  made  sufficiently  manifest  in  ii.,  i8.  Simi- 
larly he  joins  other  persons  with  himself  in  the  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Colossians,  Philippians,  and 
Philemon.  Silvanus  is  the  same  as  Silas,  mentioned  in  Acts 
as  Paul's  companion  on  his  second  missionary  journey.  On 
the  way  they  were  joined  by  Timothy,  probably  a  much 
younger  man,  and  the  three  laboured  together  in  founding 
the  church  at  Thessalonica.  Their  experiences  must  have 
been  similar  ;  and  as  Paul  generally  uses  the  first  person 
plural,  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  suppose  that, 
for  the  most  part,  he  is  speaking  in  the  name  of  his  compan- 
ions as  well  as  his  own. 

In  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.,  I). 
— As  the  Christian  congregations  in  Judaea  are  distin- 
guished from  the  Jewish  synagogues  by  being  "  in  Christ  " 
(Gal.  i.,  22),  so  "  the  assembly  "  (for  this  is  the  meaning  of 
the  word  translated  "church")  of  Christians  in  a  Gentile 

17 


i8  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  i.,  1-5. 

city  were  in  God  and  Christ.  To  believe  in  God  as  their 
Father  was  a  new  faith  to  these  converts,  and  they  had  come 
to  it  through  the  acknowledgment  of  Jesus  as  their  Lord. 
These  were  the  central  and  controlling  ideas  of  Paul's  preach- 
ing, and  they  suitably  make  their  appearance  in  one  form  or 
another  in  the  opening  of  every  Epistle. 

Grace  to  you,  ayid  peace  (i.,  i). — For  the  meaning  of  this 
greeting,  see  Gal.  i.,  3,  where  its  deeper  sense  is  more  closely 
connected  with  the  topics  discussed  in  the  Epistle. 

Paul  opens  the  subject  by  giving  thanks  for  the  spiritual  excel- 
lence of  the  Thessalonians,  and  their  manner  of  receiving  the 
Gospel  (i.,  2-10). 

Your  7Vork  of  faith  (i.,  3);  that  is,  the  work  which  be- 
longs to  faith.  The  singular  denotes  the  collective  activity. 
Compare  Gal.  v.,  6. 

Patience  of  hope  (i.,  3). — The  Greek  is  stronger  than  our 
"  patience,"  and  refers  to  the  manl}'  endurance  which  char- 
acterised their  lofty  expectations.  Observe  the  union  of 
faith,  love,  and  hope,  the  three  abiding  principles  of  i 
Cor.  xiii.,  13, 

Hope  in  our  Lord  fesus  Christ  {{.^  3). — In  the  Greek  the 
genitive  is  used,  and  it  seems  best  to  regard  Jesus  as  the 
object  hoped  for,  the  reference  being  to  the  second  coming, 
of  which,  in  this  Epistle,  the  Apostle's  mind  is  so  full. 

Your  election  (i.,  4). — The  word  indicates  that  the  dis- 
ciples were  not  only  called,  but  chosen.  Paul's  doctrine 
of  election  must  be  considered  elsewhere.  Here  it  must  be 
sufficient  to  remark  that  the  reception  of  the  Gospel  by  some, 
and  its  non-reception  by  others,  was  hardly  a  matter  of  hu- 
man will,  and  that  the  progress  of  great  religious  movements 
depends  upon  forces  which  are  not  ours. 

Hozu  that  (i.,  5). — The  meaning  of  the  Greek  is  doubtful. 
With  this  translation  the  following  words  define  the  manner 
of  the  election  ;  with  the  translation  "because"  they  give 
the  reasons  for  Paul's  knowledge    that    the    disciples  were 


i.,  5-8.  FIRST  THESSAL0A7ANS  19 

elect,  namely,  the  power  with  which  he  was  inspired  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  and  the  admirable  way  in  which  they 
received  it. 

In  (he  Holy  Ghost  (i.,  5). — There  is  no  article  in  the  Greek  ; 
but  if  "  Holy  Spirit  "  be  regarded  as  a  proper  name,  this  is 
not  necessary.  As  the  expression,  however,  stands  between 
"power"  and  "assurance,"  with  which  it  seems  strictly 
parallel,  it  is  very  harsh  to  give  it  a  personal  meaning.  The 
words  indicate  three  kinds  of  Divine  influence,  the  powerful 
speech,  the  holy  exaltation,  the  fervid  conviction,  which 
thrilled  and  subdued  the  hearts  of  the  listeners. 

Yc  becauie  imitators  of  lis,  and  of  the  Lord  (i.,  6). — The 
manner  of  imitation  is  defined  by  the  reference  to  "afflic- 
tion." In  the  cheerful  endurance  of  persecution  they  fol- 
lowed Paul  and  his  companions,  na}^,  the  Lord  himself,  who 
is  the  great  example  of  righteous  suffering  for  the  word  of 
God.  The  persecution  is  again  referred  to  in  ii.,  14,  and  its 
beginning  is  described  in  Acts  xvii.,  5  sqq. 

Joy  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (i.,  6) ;  that  is,  joy  inspired  by  the 
indwelling  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  the  joy  that  attends  the 
consciousness  of  acting  in  obedience  to  the  Divine  will. 

Ye  became  an  cnsample  (i.,  7). — This  must  refer  to  a  time 
subsequent  to  Paul's  visit,  for  the  church  at  Thes.salonica 
was  itself  the  second  that  was  founded  in  Europe.  Its 
fidelity  furnished  a  model  for  all  others.  Macedonia  and 
Achaia  are  the  names  of  the  two  Roman  provinces  into 
which  Greece  was  divided. 

The  word  of  the  Lord  (i.,  8). — I  think  "  the  Lord  "  here 
means  Christ,  as  in  v.  6,  and  usually  in  Paul.  Thessa- 
lonica,  being  a  busy  commercial  town,  served  as  a  good  start- 
ing-point from  which  the  sound  of  the  Gospel  spread  over 
Greece.  This  sound  was  connected  with  the  faith  of  the 
converts,  which  the  Apostle  accordingly  mentions,  thereby 
changing  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  which  would  nat- 
urally close  with  the  words  "  in  every  place."     Observe  that 


20  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  i.,  9,  lO. 

the  faith  spoken  of  is  that  directed  towards  God.  This  was 
fundamental  in  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  ;  and  that  the 
church  was  composed  of  Gentiles  appears  from  the  following 
verse,  where  it  is  said  that  the  disciples  had  turned  unto  God 
from  idols. 

They  themselves  (i.,  9)  ;  that  is,  the  people  in  Macedonia 
and  Achaia.  Wherever  Paul  went,  the  news  of  his  work 
at  Thessalonica,  and  of  its  success,  had  preceded  him,  so 
that  he  had  not  to  tell  the  story. 

To  serve  a  living  and  true  God,  and  to  wait  for  his  Son  from 
heaven  (i.,  9,  10). — These  verses  probably  contain  in  a  con- 
densed form  the  substance  of  Paul's  doctrinal  teaching  at 
this  time.  The  resurrection  of  Jesus  is  ascribed  to  the 
agency  of  God,  and  is  probably  referred  to  here  both  as 
proving  the  Divine  sonship  of  Jesus  (see  Romans  i.,  4)  and 
as  presupposed  in  his  expected  return.  "The  wrath"  is 
used  not  only  of  the  anger  which  God  feels  against  sin,  but 
of  the  manifestation  of  His  retributive  justice,  which  Paul  ex- 
pected soon  to  break  upon  the  world.  The  Greek  does  not 
suggest  that  this  wrath  was  "  to  come"  in  some  indefinite 
future,  but  that  it  was  "  coming,"  as  though  it  were  actually 
on  the  way.  From  the  dread  crisis  Jesus  was  continually 
delivering  men  by  gathering  them,  through  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel,  into  the  kingdom  of  God. 

Paul  now  takes  up,  and  treats  at  greater  length,  the  subject  of 
i.,  9  ;  first,  describing  his  manner  of  preaching  and  living  among  the 
Thessalonians  (ii.,  1-12),  and,  secondly,  referring  to  their  reception 
of  the  Gospel  in  spite  of  persecutions  (ii.,  13-16). 

The  Apostle  seems  to  be  here  defending  himself  against 
actual  or  possible  charges.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  for 
supposing  that  these  were  made  by  Jewish  Christians  within 
the  church.  They  are  rather  advanced  by  opponents  of  the 
whole  Christian  movement,  who  sought  to  discredit  it  by  ac- 
cusing its  leaders  of  sordid  and  selfish  motives.     Paul,  fear- 


ii.,  1-6.  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  2x 

ing  that  some  of  the  brethren  might  be  influenced  by  such 
attacks,  endeavours  to  strengthen  them  by  appealing  to  their 
own  better  knowledge.  He  had  borne  persecution  no  less 
than  they  ;  he  had  worked  for  his  own  bread  ;  and  he  had 
treated  them  with  all  gentleness  and  love. 

Found  vain  (ii.,  l). — The  Greek  is  "empty"  ;  tliat  is, 
it  was  not  emptj'  of  power  and  influence,  as  that  of  pretend- 
ers would  have  been. 

Of  error  (ii.,  3)  ;  literally  "  out  of  error  "  ;  that  is,  it  does 
not  spring  from  error.  The  reference  is  general,  to  his 
preaching  at  all  times  and  places. 

Nor  of  luicleanncss  (ii.,  3). — The  meaning  is  a  little  uncer- 
tain, but  the  word  is  probably  used  of  impurity  of  motive, 
and  base  desire  of  gain. 

A  cloak  of  covctoJisncss  (ii.,  5)  ;  a  specious  pretext  which 
served  to  conceal  a  real  covetousness. 

Been  burdensome,  or,  as  the  margin  has  it,  claimed  honour^ 
(ii.,  6). — The  Greek  is  literally  "  to  be  in  weight. ' '  This  may 
refer  to  the  burden  of  maintenance,  as  is  clearly  the  case  in 
V.  9,  where  the  construction  is  different,  but  a  word  from 
the  same  root  is  used.  See  also  2  Thess.  iii.,  8  ;  2  Cor. 
xi.,  9,  xii.,  16.  This  meaning  suits  very  well  the  refer- 
ence to  covetousness,  and  is  strongl}^  supported  by  the 
parallel  passages.  The  other  sen.se  comes  from  the  applica- 
tion of  the  word  in  a  figurative  wa}-,  like  our  own  "  weight," 
as  when  we  speak  of  a  man  of  weight  and  dignity.  This  is 
favoured  here  by  the  allusion  to  seeking  glory  from  men, 
and  b}^  the  contrast  of  "gentleness"  which  follows.  The 
two  meanings,  however,  need  not  be  widely  separated  in  the 
present  passage  ;  for  it  would  be  as  men  of  weight  and  dis- 
tinction that  they  would  claim  the  right  of  maintenance. 

Apostles  (ii.,  6). — The  word  is  here  used  in  its  wide  sense, 
and  includes  Paul's  companions.  Vhey  naturally  followed 
the  same  rules  when  working  together. 

'  So  in  the  English  Version.     The  American  edition  is  diflFerent. 


22  FIRST  THESSALONIANS         ii.,  7-15. 

Gentle  (ii.,  7). — The  margin  tells  us  that  "most  of  the 
ancient  authorities  read  babes.''  The  words  have  no  resem- 
blance in  English,  but  in  Greek  they  differ  only  by  a  single 
letter  ;  and  as  this  letter  happens  to  come  at  the  end  of  the 
previous  word,  it  was  easy  for  a  transcriber  to  make  a  mis- 
take, for  in  the  ancient  manuscripts  the  words  were  not 
divided  by  a  space  from  one  another.  The  context  requires 
"  gentle,"  which  also  has  ample  authority. 

For  this  cause  (ii.,  13),  refers  to  the  whole  of  the  previous 
statement :  we  were  so  earnest  in  our  work  that  we  also  (as 
well  as  you  who  received  the  benefit)  are  most  thankful  for 
your  acceptance  of  our  message. 

The  -word  of  God  (ii.,  13). — "  Word  "  denotes  the  substance 
of  the  message,  the  rational  thought  contained  in  it,  not  the 
particular  phraseology  in  which  it  was  expressed  ;  so  that  if 
a  claim  to  inspiration  is  found  here,  it  relates  to  the  truths 
themselves,  not  to  the  manner  of  their  presentation.  It  is 
the  kind  of  claim  which  all  men  make  on  behalf  of  a  truth 
which  has  come  to  and  commands  them.  Such  truths  work 
energeticall}' ,  and  prove  their  Divine  power,  in  the  lives  of 
those  who  believe  them. 

For  (ii.,  14),  introduces  a  proof  that  the  word  of  God  was 
operative  in  them  :  they  bore  persecution  as  bravely  as  the 
Judaean  churches,  which  had  been  the  first  to  receive 
Christianity. 

Yotir  0ZV71  countryme7i  (ii.,  14). — It  is  harder  to  bear  perse- 
cution when  it  comes  from  those  who  ought  to  befriend  us. 
According  to  Acts  xvii.,  5,  the  Jews  were  at  the  bottom  of 
the  mischief,  but  they  acted  through  the  rabble  of  the  city, 
and  inflamed  them  by  political  misrepresentations. 

Who  both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus,  etc.  (ii.,  15). — This  vehe- 
ment attack  on  the  Jews  is  probably  suggested  not  only  by 
the  persecutions  in  Palestine,  but  by  the  bitter  opposition 
which  they  offered  to  Paul  in  Macedonia.  It  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind  this  aspect  of  the  facts,  for  it  appears  sometimes  to 


ii.,  16-18.         FIRSJ'  THESSALONIANS  23 

be  forgotten.  The  judicial  murder  of  Jesus  placed  an  in- 
superable barrier  between  Jews  and  Christians,  and,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  latter,  marked  the  culminating  sin  of  the  nation. 
Christianity  was  cradled  in  persecution.  It  began  by  offer- 
ing a  great  victim  to  the  religious  blindness  and  hardness  of 
the  Jews,  and  wherever  the  Christian  preachers  went  they 
were  dogged  by  Jewish  calumny  and  violence. 

Forbidding  us  to  speak  to  the  Gentiles  (ii.,  16). — These 
words  explain  in  what  way  the  Jews  were  "contrary  to  all 
men."  By  thus  acting  they  were  continuing  the  sin  of  the 
crucifixion,  and  filling  up  whatever  may  have  been  lacking 
there.  Compare  Matt,  xxiii.,  32.  For  the  final  clause  of 
this  verse  see  the  Introduction. 

Paul's  earnest  affection  for  the  Thessalonians  had  made  him 
wish  to  visit  them  more  than  once  (ii.,  17-20). 

For  a  short  season  (ii.,  17).— These  words  show  that  no 
very  long  time  can  have  elapsed  since  his  visit.  Having 
been  driven  away  prematurely,  he  was  anxious  about  the 
results  of  his  work,  and  wanted  to  see  the  brethren  face  to 
face  that  he  might  complete  what  he  had  begun. 

Satan  hindered  us  (ii.,  18.)— He  was  prevented  by  adverse 
circumstances,  of  what  nature  we  are  not  told.  The  Apostle, 
following  the  belief  of  his  time,  ascribes  them  to  Satan.  If 
any  are  unable  to  follow  Paul  in  this  view,  they  do  not  deny 
his  inspiration  except  on  that  particular  point.  It  is  a  subject 
on  which  he  never  dwells,  though  he  occasionally  accepts 
the  current  language.  The  coming  of  Christ  was  very  near  to 
his  heart,  and  filled  him  with  expectation  ;  yet  there  he  was 
under  a  mistake,  which  history  has  corrected.  We  must 
learn  that  inspiration  is  limited,  without  denying  its  reality. 

As  Paul  could  not  visit  the  Thessalonians  himself,  he  sent  Timo- 
thy to  confirm  them,  and  was  comforted  by  the  good  report  which 
he  received  of  their  faith  (iii.,  i-io). 

For  au  explanation  of  the  circumstances  see  the  Introduction, 


24  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  iii.,  1-4. 

We  thought  it  good  (lii.,  i). — Though  Paul  retains  the 
plural  form,  he  seems  now  to  be  referring  exclusively  to 
himself,  having  distinctly  intimated  in  ii.,  18,  that  such  was 
his  meaning. 

We  are  to  suffer  affliction  (iii.,  4). — We  must  notice  once 
more  how  largely  the  thought  of  persecution  enters  into 
Paul's  writing.  It  was  not  mere  sporadic  violence,  but  was 
constant  in  its  assaults.  It  was  what  all  religious  reformers, 
and  not  least  the  first  Christian  disciples,  had  to  expect. 
But  it  had  its  compensations,  the  joy  and  thankfulness 
which  were  awakened  by  the  triumph  of  a  holy  cause,  and 
by  the  steadfastness  of  believers  who  had  many  a  temptation 
to  desert. 

The  first  part  of  the  Epistle  concludes  with  a  prayer  for  the 
readers'  increase  in  love  and  holiness  (iii.,  11-13). 

In  the  expression  of  this  devout  wish  it  is  clear  that 
the  lyord  Jesus  is  regarded  as  personally  active  in  directing 
the  affairs  of  the  Church,  of  which,  under  God,  he  was  the 
head  and  leader.  God  and  the  Father  are  here,  as  else- 
where, identified,  and,  if  we  are  to  understand  language  in 
the  usual  way,  the  Lord  Jesus  is  plainly  distinguished  from 
God.  The  word  "direct"  {v.  11),  however,  is  in  the  singu- 
lar. The  same  phenomenon  is  observed  in  2  Thess.  ii.,  17, 
whence  it  has  been  supposed  to  follow  that,  though  the 
Father  and  Jesus  are  two  persons,  they  are  one  substance. 
But  in  fact  it  is  a  regular  Greek  construction,  in  such  a  case, 
to  allow  the  verb  to  agree  with  ' '  the  nearest  or  the  pre- 
dominating subject."  '  This  construction  suggests  itself 
most  readily  when  the  verb  occupies  the  first  place,  for  then 
successive  nominatives  are  added  as  a  kind  of  afterthought. 
The  New  Testament  affords  many  examples  (for  instance, 
Acts  xxvi.,  30).  When  the  verb  follows,  it  is  habitually  in 
the  plural  in  the  New  Testament,  but  this  is  not  necessitated 

'  See  Donaldson's  Greek  Grammar,  third  ed.,  p.  400. 


iii.,  i2-iv.,  4.      FIRST  THESSALONIANS  25 

by  classical  usage,  and  the  present  passage  may  be  an  ex- 
ception on  quite  other  than  the  theological  ground  which 
has  been  suggested.  The  activity  is  regarded  as  one,  Christ 
acting  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the  Father. 

The  Lord  (iii.,  12). — This  is  the  reading  accepted  by  re- 
cent critics  as  having  most  authority.  It  is,  however,  not 
absolutely  certain,  some  few  authorities  reading  "God," 
and  others  omitting  the  subject  altogether.  If  the  reading 
be  retained  I  think  the  reference  is  to  Christ,  not  only  on 
account  of  Pauline  usage  generally,  but  on  account  of  the 
application  of  the  word  in  the  immediate  context. 

Co)?u>ig  {in.,  13),  literally  "presence."  It  is  a  technical 
word  and  more  expressive  than  "coming."  It  implies 
that,  however  Christ  may  have  been  spiritually  present  with 
his  Church,  he  was,  comparativel}'  speaking,  absent  (com- 
pare 2  Cor.  v.,  6).  The  word  occurs  six  times  in  the  two 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  ;  elsewhere  only  once  in  Paul 
(i  Cor.  XV.,  23). 

The  second  part  of  the  Epistle  is  devoted  to  exhortations,  and 
doctrinal  statements  respecting  the  future  life  and  the  second  com- 
ing of  Christ  (iv.,  i-v.,  22). 

The  first  subject  dealt  with  is  the  need  of  personal  purity,  on 
which  Gentiles  had  very  lax  notions,  and  which  Paul  evidently  had 
great  difficulty  in  enforcing  (iv.,  1-8). 

/;/  flic  Lord  yesus  (iv.,  l)  ;  that  is,  as  living  in  and  in- 
fluenced by  him.  The  exhortation  was  not  Pauline,  but 
Christian.  A  similar  idea  is  expressed  by  the  words 
through  the  Lord  yesus  (iv.,  2)  ;  the  commands  were 
given  under  his  direction,  and  in  his  name.  This  is  dwelt 
upon  to  add  weight  and  solemnity  to  the  exhortation.  The 
references  here  and  in  v.  6  to  Paul's  oral  teaching  are  inter- 
esting as  showing  how  earnestly  he  insisted  on  holiness  of 
life  as  part  of  his  commission  in  founding  churches. 

//is  ozan  vessel  (iv.,  4). — There  are  two  principal  interpre- 
tations of  this  expression.     Some  understand  it  of  the  body. 


26  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  iv.,  6-11. 

But  this  is  not  vSuitable  to  the  emphatic  "  own,"  or  to  the 
idea  conveyed  b)^  "possess  himself  of"  ;  and  moreover  the 
sentence  would  thus  become  simply  an  enlarged  repetition 
of  the  command  to  abstain  from  fornication.  It  is  therefore 
more  generally  understood  in  the  sense  of  a  wife  ;  and  this 
meaning  is  sufficiently  justified  by  examples,  and  is  favoured 
by  the  similar  teaching  of  i  Cor.  vii.,  2.  It  is  sometimes 
said  that  Paul  takes  a  low  view  of  marriage.  He  undoubt- 
edly looks  upon  it  as  a  proper  remedy  for  heathen  vice. 
But  is  it  not  part  of  his  greatness  that,  in  spite  of  his  own 
somewhat  ascetic  temperament,  he  was  not  blind  to  social 
and  physiological  facts?  He  sought  not  to  destroy,  but  to 
hallow;  and  the  "  sanctification  and  honour,"  of  which  he 
here  speaks,  disclose  his  high  ideal  of  the  relation  of  the 
sexes,  and  his  faith  that  Christian  marriage  could  transform 
a  physical  instinct  into  holy  love  and  mutual  reverence. 

IVrong-  Ms  brother  in  the  fnatfer  (iv.,  6). — As  there  is  no 
apparent  change  of  subject,  the  reference  must  be  to  adultery, 
or  an^'thing  whereby  the  marriage  relation  is  imperilled. 

Who  give  th  his  Holy  Spirit  unto  you  (iv.,  8).^ — -This  phrase 
suggests,  not  distinct  personality,  but  spiritual  influence,  the 
inworking  of  the  Divine  holiness  in  the  heart.  God  gives 
this  transforming  and  sanctifying  power ;  but  man  may 
reject  it,  and  so  in  yielding  to  impurity  he  is  rejecting  God 
Himself  by  violating  the  Spirit  which  is  His. 

This  subject  is  succeeded  by  a  delicate  admonition  to  increase 
of  brotherly  love,  and,  with  more  emphasis,  to  a  quiet  and  dignified 
behaviour  towards  outsiders  (iv,,  9-12). 

Taught  of  God  (iv.,  9). — This  is  expressed  in  Greek  by  one 
word,  ' '  God- taught. "  The  word  deserves  notice  as  illustrat- 
ing Paul's  comprehensive  view  of  inspiration. 

That  ye  study  to  be  quiet  (iv.,  II). — The  connection  between 
this  advice  and  that  to  brotherly  love  is  not  immediately 
apparent,  but  we  may  suppose  that  there  was  a  tendency  to 


iv.,  12.  FIRST  THKSSALONfANS  27 

fussiness  and  neglect  of  their  proper  business,  on  the  part 
of  some  members  of  the  church,  in  fulfilbnt;-  the  offices  of 
kindness,  and  this  may  have  excited  the  animadversion 
of  heathen  neighbours. 

Honestly  (iv.,  12). — The  word  does  not  refer  to  honesty  in 
its  modern  sense,  but  to  a  becoming  and  dignified  deportment. 

Nothing  (iv.,  12), — The  Greek  may  be  masculine,  "  no 
man."  Whichever  may  be  preferred,  the  warning  is  against 
becoming  dependent  through  neglect  of  their  proper  work. 

The  restless  spirit  which  has  just  been  alluded  to  w^as  partly  due 
to  mistaken  notions  connected  with  the  second  coming  of  Christ ; 
and  we  find  here  a  line  of  transition  to  the  following  passage,  w^hich 
sets  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  last  things  (technically  known  as  es- 
chatology)  (iv.,  13-v.,  u). 

Paul  had  probably  learnt  that  some  of  the  disciples  w^ere  troubled 
vvith  uncertainty  about  the  fate  of  those  who  died  before  the  com- 
ing of  Christ,  and  he  begins  by  reassuring  them  on  this  point 
(iv.,  13-18). 

It  seems  clear  that  the  Apostle  expected  that  he  himself 
and  some  of  his  readers  would  survive  to  witness  the  return 
of  Christ  (iv.,  15,  17),  and  that  he  conceived  of  this  return 
in  a  maimer  which  depends  on  a  view  of  the  universe  which 
has  forever  passed  awa3^  Alford  says  :  "  Either  these  details 
must  be  received  by  us  as  matter  of  practical  expectation,  or 
we  must  set  aside  the  Apostle  as  one  divinely  empowered  to 
teach  the  Church."  One  who  lays  down  such  an  alternat- 
ive is  no  real  friend  of  Christianity,  Alford  himself  admits 
that  Paul  was  mistaken  as  to  the  time  of  the  coming  ;  but 
then,  he  says,  this  was  not  revealed,  and,  in  support  of  this 
statement,  appeals  to  Mark  xiii.,  32.  It  seems  clear,  how- 
ever, that  Paul  believed  that  the  nearness  of  the  second 
advent  was  revealed,  though  not  its  precise  time.  And  this 
is  exactly  what  is  laid  down  in  Mark  :  the  coming  of  the  Son 
of  Man,  with  all  its  glorious  accompaniments,  was  to  be 
witnessed  l)y  the  existing  generation  ;  this  is  asserted  with 
the  most  solemn  asseveration,  and  only  "  the  day  and  the 


28  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  iv.,  15. 

hour ' '  are  unknown.  Yet  these  things  did  not  come  to  pass, 
and  the  first  generation  of  Christians  was  mistaken.  It  is  not 
for  us  to  dictate  to  the  Ahnighty  how  He  shall  reveal  Himself, 
but  to  learn  humbly  from  experience  ;  and  what  we  are 
really  taught  by  this  passage  is  to  distinguish  between 
"the  deep  things  of  God,"  which  are  in  truth  disclosed  to 
spiritual  insight,  and  apocalyptic  visions  of  future  events, 
which  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  matter  of  revelation. 
Where  Paul  appears  as  the  inspired  teacher  is  in  the  sober 
spiritual  use  that  he  makes  of  a  view  which  has  sometimes 
given  rise  to  the  wildest  fanaticism.  The  view  itself  belongs 
to  the  age,  and  perhaps  at  that  time  it  was  not  yet  possible 
to  believe  in  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  without  it. 

By  the  word  of  the  Lord  (iv.,  15).^ — ^Paul  distinctly  appeals 
to  the  authority  of  Christ.  Some  suppose  that  he  refers  to 
a  private  revelation  ;  but  I  think  it  is  more  likely  that  he  has 
in  mind  some  accepted  teaching.  Long  eschatological  dis- 
courses are  ascribed  to  Christ  in  the  Gospels,  and,  though 
the  exact  statement  here  made  is  not  found,  it  is  implied  in 
the  promise  that  the  Son  of  Man  will  gather  together  his 
elect  (Matt,  xxiv.,  31  ;  Mark  xiii.,  27).  What  Paul  meant 
literally  we  may  understand  in  the  spirit,  not  in  the  letter  ; 
and  the  abiding  lesson  of  the  passage  is  this,  that  those  who 
die  in  the  Lord  shall  not  be  separated  from  him,  but  God  has 
in  store  for  them  greater  things  than  the  heart  of  man 
conceives. 

But  though  the  coming  of  Christ  \was  not  distant,  its  precise  time 
■was  quite  uncertain,  and  therefore  there  was  need  of  constant 
vigilance  and  sobriety  (v.,  i-ii). 

This  view  exactly  corresponds  to  the  representations  in  the 
Gospels  ;  and  it  is  this  union  of  confident  expectation  of  a 
near  event  with  uncertainty  as  to  the  definite  moment  of  its 
arrival  that  keeps  our  vigilance  on  the  strain.  The  most 
tremendous  occurrence  that  may  be  thousands  of  years  off 
excites  only  a  languid  interest. 


v.,  2-10.  FIRST  THESSALONIANS  29 

Cometh  as  a  thief  in  the  7iight  (v.,  2)  ;  that  is  to  say,  quite 
unexpectedly.  This  was  evidently  a  familiar  figure  in  Christ- 
ian teaching  :  see  Matt,  xxiv.,  43  ;  Luke  xii.,  39  ;  2  Pet.  iii., 
10;  Rev.  iii.,  3,  xvi.,  15. 

As  travail  (v.,  3). — The  figure  is  founded  on  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  time.  There  may  possibly  be  some  allusion  to 
the  "  birth-pains  of  the  Messiah  "  :  see  Matt,  xxiv.,  8. 

So?is  of  light  (v.,  5),  a  Hebrew  form  of  expression,  denot- 
ing an  intimate  connection  with,  and  possession  of,  the  attri- 
bute of  light. 

They  that  sleep  sleep  in  the  night  (v.,  7),  ^  literal  statement, 
to  be  applied  metaphorically. 

The  breast-plate  of  faith  and  love,  and  for  a  helmet  the  hope 
of  salvation  (v.,  8). — Appropriately  to  the  context  only  de- 
fensive armour  is  here  alluded  to.  Compare  the  fuller  work- 
ing out  of  the  metaphor  in  Eph.  vi.,  11-17;  and  see  also 
Rom.  xiii.,  12,  and  2  Cor.  x.,  4. 

For  God  appointed  lis  (v.,  9). — The  sense  of  a  Divine  purpose 
of  love  towards  us  ought  to  strengthen  every  holy  resolution  ; 
but  it  seems  clearly  implied  that  it  may  be  otherwi.se. 

Whether  we  wake  or  sleep  (v.,  lo). — The  metaphor  here 
seems  to  be  changed,  and  to  refer  to  life  and  death.  This 
was  the  object  for  which  Christ  died  in  our  behalf,  that, 
whether  in  this  waking  world  or  in  the  sleep  of  death,  we 
should  live  with  him,  sharing  in  the  same  exalted  life  of 
righteousness.  The  precise  idea  is  not  very  clear,  for  .sleep- 
ing suggests  unconsciousness,  which  is  not  compatible  with 
the  life  that  is  spoken  of.  But  I  think  there  is  a  recurrence 
to  the  thought  of  iv.,  14  :  fulness  of  life  with  Christ  awaits 
us,  whatever  may  be  our  condition  at  his  coming  ;  therefore 
let  us  who  look  for  that  coming  act  in  a  manner  worthy  of 
our  lofty  hopes. 

Several  miscellaneous  exhortations  are  now  introduced,  describ- 
ing with  beautiful  simplicity  some  of  the  finest  features  of  the 
Christian  life  (v.,  12-22). 


so  FIRST  THESSALONIANS         v.,  12-24. 

Know  the?n  that  labour  among  you  (v.,  12). — It  is  evident 
from  this  verse  that  the  church  had  received  some  organisa- 
tion, and  had  presidents,  who,  along  with  other  work,  had 
the  duty  of  admonishing,  differing  probably  from  regular 
teaching,  and  implying  some  amount  of  authoritative  disci- 
pline. This  may  explain  the  subjoined  advice  to  "be  at 
peace  among  yourselves  ' ' ;  for  a  quarrelsome  and  disorderly 
spirit  is  connected  with  want  of  submission  to  proper  author- 
ity. The  word  "  know  "  is  used  in  a  Hebrew  sense,  imply- 
ing regard  and  friendship.     Compare  Gal.  iv.,  9. 

Rejoice  alzvay  (v.,  16). — A  joyous  temper  is  one  on  which 
Paul  sets  great  store.  It  is  closely  connected  with  thankful- 
ness, which  not  only  flows  forth  for  every  obvious  blessing, 
but  in  everything  finds  traces  of  the  love  of  God  ;  and  it  is 
nurtured  by  prayer,  the  inward  communion  which  conse- 
crates every  word  and  deed. 

Prophesyings  (v.,  2o). — This  does  not  refer  to  predictions, 
but  answers  rather  to  our  "  preaching."  It  is  the  inspired 
enunciation  of  truth,  and  an  appeal  to  the  hearers. 

The  exhortations  are  succeeded  by  a  prayer  fof  the  readers'  sanc- 
tification,  and  an  assurance  of  its  accomplishment  (v.,  23,  24). 

Spirit  a7id  soul  and  body  (v.,  23). — In  this  division  the  .spirit 
refers  to  that  higher  portion  of  our  nature  which  can  enter 
into  conscious  communion  with  God  ;  soul,  to  the  animal 
principle  of  life,  including  intelligence  in  its  lower  ranges. 
Hence  the  psychical  ("  natural  ")  man  is  one  in  whom  the 
spiritual  element  is  dormant ;  the  spiritual  man,  one  in  whom 
it  has  wakened  to  its  true  life,  and  become  recipient  of  the 
Spirit  of  God. 

Calleth  (v.,  24)  :  present  tense,  as  in  ii.,  12.  He  who  calls 
cannot  change  ;  He  will  accomplish  His  own  work. 

The  Epistle  closes  with  a  request  for  the  prayers  of  the  church  ; 
a  direction  to  salute  the  brethren,  and  to  see  that  the  letter  is  pub- 
licly read;  and  the  usual  benediction  (v.,  25-28). 


v.,  26,  27.        FIRST  THliSSALONIANS  31 

A  holy  kiss  (v.,  26). — The  customary  kiss  of  greeting  was 
to  be  more  than  conventional  among  the  Christians  ;  it  was 
to  be  given  in  the  full  consciousness  of  the  holiness  of 
brotherhood. 

I  adjure  you  (v.,  27). — The  reason  for  such  a  strong  mode 
of  request  is  not  apparent.  Perhaps  we  may  find  some  ex- 
planation in  the  word  "  all."  It  might  be  read  at  a  public 
meeting,  and  this  might  be  thought  sufficient ;  yet  many 
might  be  absent.  Paul  was  anxious  that  all  who  needed 
such  strength  and  comfort  as  it  could  impart,  should  have 
the  benefit  of  hearing  it.  , 


SECOND  THESSALONIANS. 


ANALYSIS. 

Address  and  greeting,  i.,  i,  2. 

I.    Introductory  thanks,   encouragement,    and   prayer, 
i.,  3-12. 

1.  Thauksgiving  for  the  Tbessalonians'  increase  iu  faith  and 

love,  in  spite  of  persecutions,  i.,  3,  4. 

2.  Promise  of  recompense  and  of  the  destruction  of  persecu- 

tors, at  the  coming  of  Christ,  i.,  5-10. 

3.  Prayer  that  the  disciples  may  be  worthy,  i.,  11,  12. 

II.    Doctrinai,  statement  about  the  events  before  the 

second  advent,  ii.,   I-I2. 

III.    Exhortations,      mingled      with      thanksgiving    and 

PRAYERS,  ii.,   13-iii.,   15. 

1.  Exhortation  to  stand  fast  in  the  doctrine  which  they  had 

received,  ii.,  13-17. 

2.  Request  for  their  prayers  that  Paul  and  his  companions 

may  be  delivered  from  wicked  men,  iii.,  i,  2. 

3.  Assurance  that  they  will  be  confirmed,  and  do  what  is  en- 

joined, iii.,  3-5. 

4.  Exhortation  to  withdraw  from  the  disorderly,   and   work 

quietly  for  their  own  bread,  as  Paul  himself  had  done, 
iii.,  6-15. 
Conclusion  :    Benediction  suited  to  the  exhortations.     Au- 
thentication of  the  Epistle.     Closing  benediction,   iii., 
16-18. 


33 


SECOND   THESSALONIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

The  Epistle  begins,  as  usual,  with  an  address  and  greeting 
(i.,  I,  2). 

Paul  unites  Silvanus  and  Timoth}-  with  himself,  as  in  the 
First  Epistle.     See  the  Introduction. 

The  first  part  may  be  treated  as  introductory  to  the  main  subject 
(»-.  3-12). 

It  begins  with  a  thanksgiving  for  the  growing  faith  and  love  ot 
the  Thessalonians  (i.,  3,  4). 

As  it  is  meet  (i.,  3). — These  words  are  a  mere  tautology 
unless  we  connect  them  closely  with  the  following  clause, — 
as  is  meet  on  account  of  j-our  growing  faith. 

We  ourselves  (i.,  4),  as  well  as  others  (see  i  Thess.  i.,  8,  9), 
to  whom  we  might  be  expected  to  leave  the  commendation 
of  the  results  of  our  own  work. 

The  allusion  to  persecutions  from  which  disciples  suffered  leads 
the  Apostle  to  speak  of  the  rest  which  they  would  enjoy,  and  the 
destruction  vrhich  would  come  upon  their  enemies,  when  Christ  was 
revealed  (i.,  5-10). 

Token  (or  proof,  i.,  5). — The  sufferings  of  the  good,  the 
triumph  of  evil,  in  the  present  are  an  evidence  of  future 
judgment,  if  we  believe  that  God  is  just. 

To  the  end  that  (i.,  5). — This  probably  expresses  the  end 
contemplated  in  the  judgment,  that  you  who  have  suffered 

35 


36  SECOND  THESSALONIANS  i.,  5-9. 

for  the  kingdom  of  God  should  be  pronounced  worthy  of  it. 
The  "  kingdom  of  God  "  is  here  regarded  not  only  as  estab- 
lished in  the  hearts  of  individuals,  but  as  triumphant  in  the 
world  through  the  return  of  Christ,  and  therefore  becomes 
coincident  with  the  Messianic  kingdom. 

For  which  ye  also  suffer  (i.,  5). — Observe  the  form  of  ex- 
pression, which  is  identical  with  that  which  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  sufferings  of  Christ. 

If  so  be  that  (i.,  6). — This  form  of  supposition,  so  far  from 
indicating  doubt,  is  rather  applied  to  that  which  cannot  be 
reasonably  doubted  :  there  must  be  a  change  from  the  pres- 
ent oppression,  so  surely  as  God  is  just. 

Rest  with  us  (i.,  7)- — These  words  naturally  suggest  a 
judgment  near  at  hand,  for  there  is  no  intimation  that  Paul 
and  his  readers  were  to  die  before  it  took  place.  This  is  im- 
portant in  comparing  the  doctrine  of  the  Second  Epistle  with 
that  of  the  First. 

To  them  that  know  not  God,  and  to  them  that  obey  not  the 
Gospel  (i.,  8). — Two  classes  of  men  are  thus  distinguished, 
which  answer  roughly  to  heathens  and  Jews,  though  of 
course  Gentiles  who  had  deliberately  rejected  the  Gospel 
might  be  included  in  the  latter  class.  It  seems  clear  from 
this  and  other  passages  that  the  first  Christians  believed  that 
a  great  crisis  was  coming  upon  the  world  as  decisive  and 
sweeping  as  in  the  days  of  the  deluge.  The  world  was  lying 
in  wickedness,  and  must  be  cleansed  by  a  purifying  judg- 
ment, a  manifestation  of  Divine  "  wrath  "  against  sin.  This 
judgment  was  to  be  executed  through  the  agency  of  Christ ; 
and  out  of  the  general  ruin  those  who  accepted  the  Gospel 
would  be  saved.  At  a  later  time  Paul  presents  his  views  in 
a  loftier  strain,  and  seems  to  have  looked  for  a  longer  de- 
velopment and  a  richer  harvest  of  salvation. 

Eternal  dest^'uction  fro^n  the  face  of  the  Lord  (i.,  9). — 
Though  the  word  translated  "  eternal  "  does  not  necessarily 
denote  everlasting  duration,   the  destruction   is  clearly  re- 


i.,  II.  SECOiVD  THESSALONIANS  37 

garded  as  final.  I  think,  however,  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 
duration,  long  or  short,  entered  into  the  conception.  The 
view  was  bounded  by  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  his  glorious  kingdom,  and  beyond  that  no 
inquiry  was  raised.  All  that  belonged  to  it  was  in  the  future 
"  age,"  and  as  such  was  reckoned  part  of  the  eternal  world 
as  distinct  from  the  present  order  of  things.  Once,  however, 
in  a  later  Epistle,  Paul  strains  his  glance  into  a  more  distant 
future,  and  sees  the  time  when  the  Messianic  reign  will  be 
over,  when  every  enemy  will  be  subdued,  and  "  God  will  be 
all  in  all  "  (i  Cor.  xv.,  24-28).  These  last  words  express  a 
far-reaching  and  all-inclusive  faith.  In  the  present  passage 
"destruction"  naturally  suggests  extinction  of  conscious 
being,  or  may  refer  to  the  ruin  of  the  higher  nature  brought 
about  by  guilt.'  In  any  case  there  is  no  allusion  to  physical 
torture,  and  the  subject  is  treated  with  a  reverent  reserve 
which  less  inspired  theologians  would  have  done  well  to 
imitate.  Separation  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  is  inevit- 
able ;  for  sin  cannot  see  holiness. 

This  picture  of  future  judgment  is  followed  by  a  prayer  that  the 
Thessalonians  may  be  counted  worthy  (i.,  11,  12). 

Worthy  of  your  calling  (i.,  11)  :  not,  worthy  of  being  called 
at  the  last  day  ;  but,  worthy  of  your  Christian  calling  which 
ye  have  already  received. 

The  Apostle  now  proceeds  to  the  subject  for  the  sake  of  which 
the  Epistle  was  written.  He  corrects  an  error  which  had  arisen  in 
regard  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  and  makes  a  doctrinal 
statement  about  "  the  apostasy  "  and  "  the  man  of  sin  "  (ii.,  1-12). 

For  the  general  meaning  of  this  passage  I  must  be  content 
with  referring  to  the  Introduction.  It  would  be  impossible 
in  this  brief  commentary  to  discuss  the  various  opinions 
which   have   been  held  in   regard 'to  an  apocalypse  where 

'  Lysias  uses  the  phrase  dnajXeGei'  avrijv  of  moral  ruin.  Pro  ccede 
Eratosth.,  I  2. 


38  SECOND  THESSALONIANS         H.,  2,  3. 

imagination  can  so  easily  run  wild,  and  where  the  man  of 
sin  may  be  so  conveniently  found  in  some  religious  or  politi- 
cal foe.  The  only  plausible  conjectures  as  to  the  true  ex- 
planation must,  I  think,  be  founded  on  the  beliefs  and 
circumstances  of  the  time. 

Spirit  (ii.,  2). — This  must  refer  to  some  supposed  revela- 
tion, communicated  in  the  spirit,  when  the  reflective  powers 
were  suspended,  and  the  thoughts  were  carried  away  upon  a 
tide  of  emotion. 

Or  byword,  or  by  epistle  as  from  7cs  (ii.,  2). — This  certainly 
seems  to  imply  that  there  was  some  letter  in  circulation 
which  was  said  to  be  from  the  Apostle  and  his  companions, 
and  also  misleading  reports  about  things  that  they  had  said. 
Whether  this  letter  was  an  actual  forgerj^,  or  whether  it  was 
.some  document  which,  in  mistaken  reports,  was  attributed 
to  Paul,  or  whether,  perhaps,  it  existed  only  in  rumour,  it  is 
impossible  to  decide.  If  Paul  knew  that  there  was  delib- 
erate forgery,  we  should  expect  him  to  administer  a  severe 
rebuke.  The  words  do  not  admit  of  the  explanation  that 
the  reference  is  only  to  a  misundenstanding  of  the  First 
Epistle. 

The  falling  away  (or  apostasy,  ii.,  3). — The  article  points 
to  a  well-known  apostasy,  of  which  the  Apostle  had 
doubtless  spoken  at  Thessalonica.  The  Jews  expected  a 
great  outburst  and  concentration  of  wickedness  before  the 
advent  of  the  Messiah.  "The  apostasy"  need  not  neces- 
sarily refer  to  Christian  faithlessness.  To  the  Apostle  the 
Jewish  opposition  to  the  Gospel  was  already  a  sort  of  apos- 
tasy, and  he  may  have  expected  this  to  reach  a  climax,  and 
become  an  overt  revolt  against  God  Himself,  before  Christ 
returned.  In  this  case  he  would  naturally  expect  the  Anti- 
christ to  spring  from  the  same  race  as  the  Christ.  This 
whole  representation,  whether  the  man  of  sin  be  Jewish  or 
heathen,  is  hard  to  reconcile  with  Rom.  xi.  ;  but  in  the  next 
few  years  Paul  was  compelled  by  circumstances  to  work  out 


ii.,  4-1 1.        SECOND  THESSALONIANS  39 

the  logical  results  of  his  own  spiritual  principles,  and  he 
may  have  shaken  off  more  and  more  the  clinging  shreds  of 
his  rabbinical  thought. 

The  temple  of  God  (ii.,  4)  can  hardly  mean  anything  but 
the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  though  some  would  understand  it 
of  the  Christian  Church,  which  is  described  in  these  words 
by  Paul  himself  (i  Cor.  iii.,  16).  Here,  however,  there  is 
nothing  to  suggest  a  figurative  meaning.  The  present 
tenses  describe  the  character  of  Antichrist  without  reference 
to  time. 

/  told  you  these  thiui>s  (ii.,  5). — We  have  here  another 
glimpse  into  the  subjects  of  Paul's  oral  teaching.  The 
Thessalonians  had  a  key  to  the  meaning  of  this  passage 
which  we  no  longer  pos.sess. 

He  may  be  revealed  in  his  own  season  (ii.,  6). — This  ex- 
pression (with  that  in  v.  3)  suggests  that  the  Antichrist  was 
already  in  existence,  though  not  yet  manifested. 

The  mystery  of  lawlessness  (ii.,  7)  was  already  working, 
pursuing  its  hidden  way  in  the  corruption  of  mankind  ;  but 
the  time  was  to  come  when  every  restraint  would  be  re- 
moved, and  the  man  of  sin  be  revealed  with  his  false  signs 
and  wonders.  Then  Jesus  would  return,  and  destroy  him 
with  a  breath  iy.  8). 

They  received  not  the  love  of  the  truth  (ii.,  lO). — The  men 
who  were  to  fall  under  the  power  of  Antichrist,  then,  were 
first  to  be  guilty  of  a  rejection.  They  might  have  loved  the 
truth,  but  they  chose  rather  to  cling  to  their  own  opinions. 
In  the  minds  of  too  many,  love  of  truth  means  love  of  some 
popular  dogma  :  it  really  means  love  of  that  which  is  true, 
and  a  deep  desire  to  find  it  and  submit  oneself  to  it.  The 
Divine  punishment  for  an  egotistic  attachment  to  prejudice 
is  a  working  of  error  (ii.,  Il)  :  only  the  simplicity  of  aim 
from  which  self  is  wholly  banished  can  impart  a  just  judg- 
ment. And  here  we  must  distinguish  between  truth  of 
moral  and  spiritual  intuition,  which  belongs  to  purity  of 


40  SECOND  THESSALONIANS      ii.,  12-15. 

heart,  and  truth  of  intellectual  view,  which  depends  also  on 
the  extent  of  knowledge  and  the  powers  of  thought.  The 
former  truth  seems  to  be  that  which  is  here  contemplated, 
for  it  is  contrasted  with  "unrighteousness"  (ii.,  12).  It  is 
not  the  involuntary  error,  which  may  attend  the  sincerest 
love  of  truth,  but  the  blinding  "pleasure  in  unrighteous- 
ness," that  renders  men  liable  to  judgment. 

From  his  doctrinal  statement  the  Apostle,  as  usual,  turns  to  ex- 
hortation, which  is  here  mingled  with  thanksgiving  and  prayer 
(ii.,  13-iii.,  15). 

Chose  you  from  the  beginimig  (ii.,  13). — This  can  hardly 
mean  "  from  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel,"  as  there  is  nothing 
to  suggest  this,  but  must  be  understood  quite  indefinitely, 
"from  the  beginning  of  things,"  signifying  that  their  elec- 
tion was  part  of  the  providential  plan  of  the  world.  The 
reading  in  the  margin,  "  as  first-fruits,"  differs  in  the  Greek 
by  only  a  single  letter  from  that  which  is  adopted  in  the  text. 
Paul  uses  the  expression  "first-fruits"  elsewhere,  but  not 
"from  the  beginning"  ;  hence  the  former  may  have  been 
a  conjectural  emendation.  There  would  be  no  propriety  in 
calling  the  Thessalonians  first-fruits,  for  they  were  not  the 
earliest  believers  even  in  Macedonia. 

Sanctification  of  the  Spirit  (ii.,  13). — This  may  mean 
sanctification  produced  by  the  Holy  Spirit  ;  but  as  there 
is  no  article  in  the  Greek,  it  ma}'  mean  simply  sanctification 
of  spirit,  referring  to  the  human  spirit.  For  the  latter  use 
of  "spirit"  compare  2  Cor.  vii.,  i. 

Stand  fast  (ii,,  15). — This  exhortation  shows  that  Paul 
did  not  forget  the  existence  of  human  conditions.  It  was 
through  no  will  of  their  own  that  the  Thessalonians  were 
selected  to  hear  the  Divine  call  through  the  Christian 
preachers  ;  but  it  did  depend  on  their  own  will  whether 
they  would  be  true  to  their  higher  privileges  and  responsi- 
bilities. Paul,  with  his  profound  sense  of  having  been  called 
to  be  an  Apostle,  nevertheless  felt  that  he  must  fight,  and 


ii.,  i5-iii.,  10.     SECOND  77iESS.lLONIANS  41 

bufifet  his  body,  lest,  having  preached  to  others,  he  himself 
should  be  rejected  (i  Cor.  ix.,  27). 

The  traditions  (ii.,  15). — This  translation,  though  no 
better  can  be  offered,  is  a  little  misleading ;  for  the  word, 
with  us,  implies  something  which  is  handed  down  orally 
through  successive  generations.  The  Greek  may  include 
this,  but  does  not  necessarily  denote  more  than  that  which 
is  handed  on  from  one  to  another.  Here  it  refers  to  the 
teaching  which  Paul  had  received,  and  then  delivered  to  the 
converts  at  Thessalonica.  Compare  i  Cor.  xi.,  23,  andxv., 
3,  where  the  corresponding  verb  is  used. 

The  evil  one  (iii.,  3). — The  Greek  adjective  may  be 
either  masculine  or  neuter,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
context  to  justify  us  in  giving  a  confident  decision.  "  One  " 
is  not  expressed  in  the  Greek. 

The  succeeding  exhortation  (iii.,  6-15)  is  evidently  directed 
against  some  disorders  which  were  known  to  exist  in  the 
church,  and  which  were  probably  connected  with  the  mis- 
taken views  about  the  coming  of  Christ.  A  contempt  for  the 
common  and  necessary  pursuits  of  the  world  might  spring 
either  from  a  false  spirituality  or  from  a  belief  that  the  old 
order  of  societ}^  was  already  in  the  pangs  of  dissolution. 

Withdraiv  yoiirselves  (iii,,  6). — Paul  does  not  advise  any 
harsh  treatment,  but  only  that  the  disciples  should  not 
associate  themselves  with  an  erring  brother  in  his  erroneous 
conduct.  We  may  contrast  this  with  the  formal  excom- 
nuniication  which  he  requires  in  the  case  of  the  offender  at 
Corinth.  In  both  instances  the  oflfence  is  not  doctrinal,  but 
moral ;  and  here  it  is  foolish  and  mistaken  rather  than 
wicked.  If,  however,  any  man,  after  this  warning,  refused 
to  submit  to  the  Apostle's  authority,  the  rest  were  to  have  no 
company  with  him  ;  but  even  then  he  was  not  to  be  expelled 
from  the  society,  but  admonished  as  a  brother  (iii.,  14,  15). 

If  a7iy  will  not  zcork,  neither  let  him  eat  (iii.,  lo). — This 
was  a  recognised  principle  among  the  rabbis. 


42  SECOND  THESSALONIANS     iii.,  16-18. 

The  exhortation  is  followed  by  an  appropriate  benediction  (iii., 
16). 

Peace  is  the  opposite  of  an  agitated  mind  and  disorderly 
conduct.  Whenever  the  lyord  might  come,  he  was  the  lyord 
of  peace,  and  the  peace  of  a  trustful  and  dutiful  heart  was 
the  best  evidence  of  his  blessing.  Paul  expressly  includes 
"all,"  embracing  the  disorderly  who  most  needed  it,  in  his 
benediction. 

The  Apostle  now  authenticates  his  letter  by  his  autograph 
(iii.,  17.  See  the  Introduction),  and  closes  the  Epistle  with  a 
benediction  (iii.,  18),  once  more  mentioning  "all,"  to  show 
that  the  faults  which  he  found  it  necessary  to  reprove  did  not 
exclude  any  brother  from  his  Christian  blessing. 


THE  EPISTLES  TO  THE 
CORINTHIANS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE   FIRST   EPISTLR. 

THE  date  and  place  of  composition  of  Fir.=;t  Corinthians 
can  be  satisfactorih'  determined.  It  wa.s  written  from 
Ephesu.s '  ;  and  it  is  clear  that  it  was  so  during  the  Apostle's 
.second  visit,  for  Apollos  is  referred  to  as  having  been  at 
Corinth,  and  watered  what  Paul  had  planted,^  and  at  the  time 
of  writing  he  was  again  at  Ephesus.'  As  Paul  expresses  his 
intention  of  remaining  at  Ephesus  till  Pentecost,*  we  may 
conclude  that  the  letter  was  despatched  not  very  long  before 
the  termination  of  his  visit,  certainly  within  its  closing  year, 
and  it  is  perhaps  a  fair  inference  from  the  allusion  to  the 
Passover  and  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  that  it  was 
composed  when  that  festival  was  approaching.^  The  reast^n 
alleged  for  his  remaining,  that  "a  great  door"  was  opened 
to  him,  certainly  shows  that  he  was  looking  forward  to  a 
period  of  effective  activity  ;  but  a  couple  of  months  might 
satisfy  this  expectation.  That  the  period  was  not  very  long 
is  proved  by  his  intention  of  proceeding  to  Corinth  "  shortly.''  " 
The  occa.sion  of  the  letter  is  equally  clear.  Paul  had  al- 
ready written  to  Corinth,  probably  i<i  consequence  of  reports 

'  xvi.,  8  ;  see  also  5  and  19.  ''i.,  12  ;   iii.,  4-6. 

'xvi.,  12.  ^xvi.,  8.  *v.,  6-S.  Mv.,  19. 

43 


44  INTRODUCTION 

which  had  reached  him,  warning  the  brethren  to  give  no  en- 
couragement to  that  impurity  which  was  such  a  disgrace  to 
Grecian  morals,  and  not  least  in  Corinth.'  From  the  earn- 
estness with  which  the  Apostle  pleads,  and  from  his  repeated 
references  to  the  subject,  it  is  plain  that  he  found  it  difficult 
to  convince  the  converts  of  the  sinfulness  of  unlawful  indulg- 
ence. This  letter  has  been  lost,  perhaps  owing  to  its  brev- 
ity and  the  limited  range  of  its  topics.  It  seems  to  have 
raised  various  connected  questions  at  Corinth,  and  the  disciples 
wrote  to  Paul  for  further  instructions  in  regard  to  marriage 
and  divorce  and  mixed  marriages.^  Their  epistle  was  appar- 
ently sent  by  the  hands  of  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and 
Achaicus,'  and  the  opportunity  was  embraced  of  consult- 
ing the  Apostle  about  several  other  difficulties  which  had 
arisen  in  the  church,  such  as  the  use  of  meat  offered  to 
idols,''  the  exercise  of  spiritual  gifts,^  the  denial  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead,°  the  "  collection  for  the  saints"  in  Jeru- 
salem.' We  cannot  be  sure  that  all  these  subjects  were 
included  in  the  lost  letter  from  the  church  ;  for  Paul  had 
other  sources  of  information.  He  had  been  told  by  the 
people  of  Chloe  that  the  church  was  divided  into  factions, 
according  to  the  preference  which  was  felt  for  one  or  another 
teacher.''  Whether  Chloe  was  a  resident  in  Corinth  or 
Ephesus  we  cannot  determine.  A  report  had  reached  the 
Apostle  of  an  act  of  incest,  such  as  was  not  named  even 
among  the  Gentiles,' and  of  shocking  divisions  and  disorders 
in  the  celebration  of  the  love-feasts  and  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per '" ;  and  mutual  alienation  had  reached  such  an  extreme 
that  brother  went  to  law  with  brother  before  heathen  magis- 
trates." In  the  public  services,  too,  the  women,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  gift  of  prayer   and   prophecy,    and   of  the 

'  v.,  9.  ">■  vii.,  I. 

^xvi.,    17.     Weizsacker  takes  a  different  view;    but   the  question 

does  not  affect  the  interpretation  of  the  Epistle,   and  need  not  be 

discussed.  ^viii.,  i.         ^xii.,  i.  *xv.,  i,  12.  'xvi.,  i,  3. 

*i.,  II.  ^v.,i.  '"xi.,  i8.y^^.  "vi.,i.y^^. 


FIRST  CORINTHIANS  45 

Christian  equality  of  all  before  God,  made  themselves  un- 
duly prominent,  and  gave  offence  by  departing  needlessly 
from  established  custom.'  These  various  subjects  are  gen- 
erally treated  with  penetrating  insight  and  breadth  of  wis- 
dom, and  from  the  highest  ethical  and  spiritual  position  ; 
and  the  treatment  is  accompanied  by  profound  reflections, 
and  gives  occasion  for  a  grand  outburst  of  eloquence  in  cele- 
bration of  love  as  the  greatest  of  the  virtues  and  the  enduring 
essence  of  the  Christian  life  ;  but  occasionally,  and  especially 
in  the  last-mentioned  topic,  the  arguments  must  appear  to  us 
strange  and  inadequate,  and  the  whole  mode  of  presentation 
falls  below  what  we  should  expect  from  one  who  declared 
that  in  Christ  there  was  neither  male  nor  female.  We  may 
explain  this  in  part  from  the  disorders  existing  in  the 
church.  It  may  be  that  certain  women  had  made  them- 
selves offensively  prominent,  and  had  afforded  to  society 
outside  an  opportunity  for  charging  the  Christians  with  en- 
couraging forwardness  and  immodesty  in  women.  Paul's 
teaching  was  destined  in  time  to  work  a  mighty  change  ; 
but  it  was  a  change  which  he  was  not  led  by  his  tempera- 
ment to  anticipate  and  press  forward,  and  we  have  here  one 
more  evidence  that  he  shrunk  from  giving  needless  offence, 
and  did  not  insist  on  carrying  out  his  principles  when  it 
seemed  inexpedient,  and  no  duty  required  him,  to  do  .so. 

A  few  words  must  be  said  about  the  party  divisions  at 
Corinth,  a  subject  on  which  the  quantity  of  conjectural  writ- 
ing is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  our  certain  information.  The 
passage  from  which  we  must  start  is  i.,  12,  "Each  one  of 
you  saith,  I  am  of  Paul,  and  I  of  Apollo,';,  and  I  of  Cephas, 
and  I  of  Christ."  We  must  notice  first  the  different  inter- 
pretations of  the  verse  itself.  The  existence  of  a  Christ- 
party  has  been  got  rid  of  in  various  ways.  The  simplest 
and  most  probable  is  that  which  attributes  the  words,  "  I  of 
Christ,"  to  those  who  declined  to  assume  a  party  uame,  and 
'xi.,  2,sqq.  ;  xiv.,  z^sq. 


46  IN  TROD  UC  TION 

adhered  to  the  broad  ground  of  Christian  faith.  A  less 
plausible  explanation  refers  the  statement  to  Paul  himself; 
and  one  still  more  forced  makes  it  the  common  cry  of  the 
three  previously  mentioned  parties,  each  arrogating  to  itself 
the  name  of  Christ,  and  denying  it  to  the  other  two.  The 
last  two  interpretations  must,  I  think,  be  rejected  as  contrary 
to  the  plain  meaning  of  the  words,  the  last  clause,  "  and  I 
of  Christ,"  being  completely  co-ordinate  with  those  that 
precede.  This  objection  applies  also,  though  with  less  force, 
to  the  first  explanation  ;  and  when  we  turn  to  2  Corinthians 
X.,  7, — "  If  any  man  trusteth  in  himself  that  he  is  Christ's, 
let  him  consider  this  again  with  himself,  that,  even  as  he  is 
Christ's,  so  also  are  we," — it  becomes  evident  that  there  was 
a  party  which  not  only  ranged  itself  under  the  name  of 
Christ,  but  denied  the  right  of  others  to  do  so.  We  are  com- 
pelled therefore  to  recognise  the  existence  of  four  parties,  or 
at  least  of  four  names  employed  in  the  promotion  of  party 
interests.  Baur  discovered  in  these  divisions  the  fundamental 
antithesis  of  primitive  Christianity,  and  accordingly  ranged 
them  into  two  groups,  Pauline  and  Petrine.  Paul  and 
Apollos  agreed  in  maintaining  the  cause  of  Gentile  freedom. 
Their  Jewish-Christian  opponents  formed  a  single  party, 
which  looked  up  to  Peter  as  their  chief,  and  on  dogmatic 
grounds  sought  to  appropriate  the  name  of  Christ.  This 
view,  accepted  in  the  main  by  a  great  number  of  writers,  has 
been  variously  modified  by  suggestions  of  some  distinction, 
more  or  less  clearly  marked,  between  the  parties  of  Peter  and 
of  Christ.  There  is  probably  some  truth  at  the  bottom  of 
this  hypothesis  ;  but  it  seems  very  improbable  that  the  con- 
troversy between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christianity  had  reached 
an  acute  phase  at  Corinth,  for  Paul  makes  no  allusion  to  it, 
and  adduces  not  a  .single  argument  against  the  observance  of 
the  Law.  He  treats  the  divisions  purely  as  the  result  of  a 
factious  preference  for  one  teacher  rather  than  another.  In- 
stead  of  arguing   against   the   claims  of  Peter  he  argues 


FIRST  CORINTHIANS  47 

against  his  own, — "  Was  Paul  crucified  for  you,  or  were  you 
baptised  in  the  name  of  Paul  ?  " — and  when  he  adds  another 
to  himself  he  chooses  Apollos,  who  (unlike  Peter)  had  been 
at  Corinth,  and  watered  where  Paul  had  planted.  Of  him- 
self and  his  brother  teacher  he  declares,  "  He  that  plants 
and  he  that  waters  arc  one  "  ;  and  the  whole  basis  of  his  con- 
tention is  that  there  were  no  differences  of  principle  to  jus- 
tify a  separation.  The  divisions  sprang  out  of  a  carnal  as- 
sumption of  superior  wisdom,  and  were  to  be  overcome  by 
humble  submission  to  the  highest  wisdom  of  the  vSpirit 
of  God,  and  a  consequent  refusal  to  glory  in  men.  All  this 
points  to  Greeks,  with  their  love  of  disputation  and  fac- 
tion, rather  than  to  Judaisers  who,  in  the  opinion  of  Paul, 
were  imperilling  the  very  existence  of  the  Gospel.  In  the 
Second  Epistle  '  it  becomes  evident  that  a  violent  personal 
attack  had  been  made  on  Paul,  and  apparently  by  the  (Hirist- 
party,  but,  so  far  as  we  can  gather,  the  attack  was  on  the 
man  Paul,  and  not  on  the  Gospel  which  he  preached.  He 
was  accused  of  walking  according  to  the  flesh,  seemingly  in 
the  sense  of  seeking  his  own  interest,'  and  the  attack  still 
proceeded  from  Greeks,  if  we  are  to  j  udge  from  the  sneer  at  his 
bodily  feebleness  and  his  contemptible  speech,'  and  from 
Paul's  fear  that  the  result  of  all  this  strife  and  jealous}^  would 
be  the  impenitence  of  men  who  had  given  way  to  licentious- 
ness.* Still  they  seem  to  have  rested  their  pretensions  on 
the  expectation  of  someone  who  was  coming  to  preach  an- 
other Jesus,  and  give  them  a  different  Gospel,^  and  they  may 
have  been  influenced  by  men  already  present  who  boasted 
that  they  were  Hebrews,  Israelites,  the  seed  of  Abraham, 
ministers  of  Christ,  and  who  may  have  been  actually  per- 
sonal disciples  of  Jesus,  and  claimed  superiority  on  that 
ground."  From  all  this  I  should  infer  that,  though  Jewish 
opponents  of  Paul  were  at  work  in  Corinth,  the  danger  of 

'  x.-xii.  ■  x.,  2  ;  xi.,  7;  xii.,  16. 

'  X.,  10  ;  xi.,  6.  '•xii.,  21.  ■' xi.,  4.  "xi.,  225^/. 


48  INTRODUCTION 

Judaising  had  not  seriously  arisen,  and  the  mass  of  Paul's 
enemies  were  Greeks,  who  were  moved,  not  by  questions  of 
principle,  but  by  factious  and  personal  motives. 

THE    SECOND    EPISTLE. 

Owing  to  the  want  of  direct  information  there  is  some  un- 
certainty as  to  the  movements  which  called  forth  the  Second 
Epistle ;  but  from  scattered  statements  and  allusions  they 
may  be  inferred  with  sufficient  probability.  When  Paul 
despatched  the  First  Epistle  he  intended  to  remain  at  Ephesus 
till  Pentecost,  and  then  to  journey  through  Macedonia,  and 
go  on  to  Corinth.  It  was  his  purpose,  on  his  arrival,  to  send 
approved  men,  with  letters,  to  Jerusalem,  to  convey  the  con- 
tribution of  the  Corinthian  brethren  ;  or  if  it  should  be 
thought  better  for  him  to  go  himself,  he  would  require  them 
to  accompany  him  (presumably  that  no  suspicion  should  be 
thrown  upon  his  good  faith).  It  was  his  desire,  however,  to 
remain  for  a  considerable  time,  and  perhaps  to  spend  the 
winter  in  Greece,  so  as  to  be  able  to  go  whithersoever  circum- 
stances might  call  him.  This  he  thought  better  than  paying 
at  once  a  passing  visit.'  His  intention  of  going  to  the 
Corinthians  is  alluded  to  elsewhere.  He  had  sent  Timothy 
to  them  to  remind  them  of  his  doctrine  and  practice,'  and 
begs  that  the  latter  may  be  kindly  received,  and  sent  on  his 
way  in  peace. ^  In  consequence  of  this  mission  some  were 
puffed  up,  thinking  that  Paul  himself  would  not  come  ; 
but  he  assures  them  that  he  will  come,  and  acquaint  him- 
self, not  with  their  word,  but  their  power."  In  another 
passage  he  says  that  he  will  give  further  instructions  about 
the  lyord's  Supper  when  becomes.^  Neither  in  these  state- 
ments nor  anywhere  else  in  the  First  Epistle  is  there  a  word 
to  imply  that  Paul  had   yet   paid  more  than  one  visit  to 

'  I  Cor.  xvi.,  1-8.  ''iv.,  17. 

'xvi.,  10,  II.  Mv.,  18,  19.  ^xi.,  34. 


SECOND  CORINTHIANS  49 

Corinth,  that,  namely,  in  which  he  founded  the  Church, 
and  planted  the  seeds  which  Apollos  watered.'  But  when 
he  wrote  the  Second  Epistle,  it  is  clear,  if  we  follow  a 
natural  interpretation,  that  he  had  paid  two  visits.  He 
was  ready  to  come  a  third  time."  This  third  time  he 
was  coming,  and  he  writes  in  his  absence  what  he  had 
said  to  them  when  he  was  present  the  second  time.'  He 
alludes,  moreover,  to  a  visit  which  he  had  paid  in  grief,*  and 
this  cannot  have  been  the  first  visit,  with  its  joyous  founding 
of  the  church.  It  has  therefore  been  conjectured,  with  con- 
siderable probability,  that  Timothy  brought  such  distressing 
news  of  the  factious  and  immoral  tone  of  the  community 
that  Paul,  oppressed  with  grief  and  indignation,  hurried  oflf 
across  the  ^gean,  in  order  to  assert  his  authority  in  person. 
This  visit  was  not  satisfactory,  and  was  necessarily  brief; 
and  I  think  it  was  probably  on  this  occasion  that  Paul  formed 
the  purpose  described  in  2  Corinthians,'  from  which  he 
afterwards  departed,  thereby  exposing  himself  to  a  charge  of 
levity.  It  may  seem  an  objection  to  this  view  that  his 
purpose  was  formed  in  the  confident  persuasion  that  he  and 
the  Corinthians  gloried  in  one  another,  and  this  is  hardly  con- 
sistent with  a  painful  and  unsuccessful  visit.  But  this 
mutual  glorying  is  referred  to  "  the  day  of  our  Lord  Jesus," 
and  he  may  well  have  felt  assured  that,  in  spite  of  a 
temporary  antagonism,  their  permanent  relation  to  one 
another  in  Christ  would  reassert  itself,  and  they  would  soon 
be  ready  to  welcome  him  once  more.  Mangold  thinks  that 
he  formed  his  plan  in  Ephesus,  and  carried  out  the  first  part 
of  it  by  his  journey  to   Corinth,  and  then,  owing  to   the 

'  Scbmiedel.  however,  (in  the  Hand-Conivientar^  thiuks  the  second 
visit  took  place  before  the  writing  of  the  First  Epistle.  Weiss  takes 
the  same  view,  and  thinks  the  visit  is  referred  to  in  i  Cor.  xvi.,  7. 
{The  American  Journal  of  Theology,  vol.  i.,  p.  357.)  On  the  other 
side  see  Dr.  J.  H.  Kennedy,  in  The  Expositor,  Fifth  Series,  vol.  vi., 
p.  302.  *xii.,  14  ^  xiii.,  I,  2.  Mi.,  i.  ^i.,  15-16. 


so 


INTRODUCTION 


opposition,  altered  his  course,  and  returned  to  Ephesus.  But 
he  might  just  as  well  have  retreated  into  Macedonia,  and 
there  was  no  reason  why  the  Corinthians  should  know  any- 
thing about  the  ulterior  intentions  with  which  he  started. 
If  he  was  suddenly  called  away  from  Ephesus,  he  probably 
meant  to  return,  and  carry  out  his  purpose  of  remaining  till 
Pentecost.  The  visit  to  Corinth  would  therefore  be  made  as 
short  as  possible  ;  and  he  may  have  told  his  friends  that  in- 
stead of  putting  off  his  next  visit  till  he  had  gone  through 
Macedonia,  as  he  had  said  he  would  do  in  the  First  Epistle, 
he  would  call  upon  them  on  the  way,  and  afterwards  return 
again  from  Macedonia,  to  pay  the  longer  visit  which  he 
originally  contemplated,  before  proceeding  to  Judaea. 

This  order  of  events  explains  the  writing  of  another  lost 
letter.  On  his  return  to  Ephesus  Paul  may  have  felt  that  his 
visit  had  failed  of  its  desired  effect,  and  that  it  would  be 
better  for  him,  before  visiting  Corinth  again,  to  endeavour, 
through  one  of  his  weighty  and  powerful  letters,  to  re- 
establish friendly  relations.  This  letter,  as  we  shall  see, 
succeeded  in  its  object ;  and  it  may  have  been  the  contrast 
between  the  ill  success  of  his  visit  and  the  effectiveness  of 
his  letter  which  gave  rise  to  the  scoff  about  the  feebleness  of 
his  personal  presence.  The  reality  of  this  supposed  letter 
seems  to  be  established  by  allusions  in  2  Corinthians.  In 
vii.,  8,  Paul  speaks  of  having  grieved  his  readers  by  the 
Epistle.  This  in  itself  might  possibly  refer  to  the  First 
Epistle,  which  contains  some  strong  and  plain  advice,  and  is 
not  free  from  censure.  Nevertheless  grief  can  hardly  have 
been  the  predominant  feeling  which  such  an  Epistle  excited, 
and  there  is  no  suggestion  in  it  that  it  might  cause  aliena- 
tion between  the  writer  and  the  readers.  But  about  the 
reception  of  the  letter  here  alluded  to  Paul  was  in  the  utmost 
anxiety,'  and  he  gives  the  warmest  expression  to  the  relief 
and  joy  which  he  experienced  when  he  learnt  that  it  had  not 

'ii.,  13,  vii.,  5  sqq. 


SECOND  CORINTHIANS  51 

only  caused  grief,  but  had  led  to  repentance,  and  called  forth 
the  old  feelings  of  affection  towards  himself.  Another  point 
is  this,  that  Titus  is  referred  to  as  though  he  had  been  the 
bearer  of  the  letter,  certainly  as  one  who  had  been  at  Corinth 
to  observe  its  effect,  and  to  bring  back  a  report  of  the  im- 
pression which  it  had  made.'  But  in  i  Corinthians  it  is 
Timothy  who  is  referred  to  as  having  been  sent  to  Corinth,^ 
and  there  is  no  mention  of  Titus.  The  inference  seems  in- 
evitable that  the  allusion  in  2  Corinthians  must  be  to  an 
intermediate  and  lost  epistle.  This  conclusion  is  confirmed 
by  Paul's  description  of  the  state  of  mind  in  which  he  wrote. 
It  was  out  of  much  affliction  and  many  tears/  a  state  of 
restless  anxiety  of  which  there  is  no  evidence  in  the  First 
Epistle.  It  is  also  very  doubtful  whether  the  person  who 
had  caused  grief,  and  whom  Paul  so  readily  forgives,  with- 
out the  slighest  allusion  to  his  having  committed  a  heinous 
sin,  can  be  the  incestuous  man  of  the  Plrst  Epistle ;  it  is 
much  more  likely  that  he  was  someone  who  had  been  insolent 
to  the  Apostle  during  his  short  and  unexpected  visit,  and 
had  been  rebuked  by  the  good  sense  of  the  majorit3^*  For 
an  offence  of  this  kind  the  words  are  adequate  and  worthy  ; 
for  a  loathesome  sin,  such  as  was  not  named  even  among  the 
Gentiles,  the  language  of  forgiveness  would  have  been  far 
more  serious,  and  the  reference  far  more  distinct. 

These  combinations  may  not  be  conclusive  ;  but  thej^  at 
least  clear  up  certain  difficulties,  and  give  an  intelligible  ac- 
count of  the  course  of  events.  We  must  now  return  to  more 
certain  ground.  On  leaving  Ephesus  Paul  proceeded  to 
Troas,  where  he  hoped  to  meet  Titus  ;  but,  failing  to  do  so, 
he  went  on  into  Macedonia.''  There  also  he  was  full  of 
anxiet}', — "Without  were  battles,  within  were  fears," — till 
at  last  Titus  arrived,  bringing  joyful  news  of  the  improve- 

'  ii.,  13,  vii.,  6,  13,  14.  Titus  is  further  referred  to  in  viii.,  6,  16,  23, 
zii,  18. 

*  iv.,  17,  xvi.,  lo.         ^ii.,  4.         ■'ii.,5-11.         ^  2  Cor.  ii.,  12  j<7. 


52  INTRODUCTION 

ment  in  the  state  of  things  at  Corinth,  so  that  he  was  filled 
with  consolation  and  joy.'  It  was  then  that  he  wrote  the 
Second  Epistle  ;  for  it  is  evident  from  further  allusions  that 
he  was  still  in  Macedonia  at  the  time  of  its  composition."'' 

The  contents  of  the  Epistle  were  suggested  by  the  course 
of  events.  In  its  composition  Paul  at  the  beginning  associ- 
ates Timothy  with  himself.  It  falls  into  three  main  divi- 
sions :  i.-vii.,  viii.-ix.,  x.-xiii. 

The  first  begins  with  personal  references  and  explanations, 
and  passes  on  insensibly  into  some  of  Paul's  grandest 
thoughts,  the  contrast  between  the  old  covenant  of  the  letter 
and  the  new  covenant  of  the  spirit ;  the  revelation  of  God 
in  the  heart  and  in  the  face  of  Christ ;  the  eternity  of  things 
unseen  ;  the  immortality  that  awaits  us  ;  our  responsibility 
for  the  things  done  in  the  body  ;  the  power  of  the  love  of 
Christ,  which  leads  the  way  through  death  into  life,  and 
makes  a  new  creation  for  all  who  are  in  him  ;  the  universal 
love  of  God,  who  in  Christ  is  reconciling  the  world  to  Him- 
self, allowing  him  who  knew  no  sin  to  go  down  into  the  sor- 
row and  sin  of  humanity  that  men  might  rise  in  him  into 
the  righteousness  of  God.  These  more  general  reflections 
are  succeeded  by  an  exhortation  not  to  be  j'oked  with  unbe- 
lievers, but  to  be  perfectly  pure  in  flesh  and  spirit ' ;  and 
then  the  Apostle  recurs  to  his  personal  history,  and  his  re- 
lations to  the  Corinthians. 

The  second  division  deals  with  the  collection  for  the  poor 
Christians  in  Jerusalem. 

The  third  division,  which  begins  with  "Now  I  Paul  my- 
self," is  a  vigorous  defence  of  his  apostolic  authority 
against  his  adversaries,  and  contains  some  interesting  par- 
ticulars of  his  life.  The  tone  of  these  concluding  chapters, 
X.,  i-xiii.,  lo,  is  quite  unexpected,  and  is  indeed  so  mark- 
edly different  from  that  of  the  previous  part  of  the  Epistle, 
that  many  able  critics  are  unable  to  regard  them  as  belong- 

'  Ib.^  vii.,  5  sqq.  "^  viii.  i,  ix.,  2,  4.  '  vi.,  14-vii.,  i. 


SECOND  CORINTHIANS  53 

ing  to  the  same  composition.  The  most  plausible  conjecture 
is  that  they  are  a  part  of  the  lost  letter,  which  was  written  in 
sorrow.  The  tone  and  the  subject  appear  suitable  ;  and  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  certain  expressions  in  the  earlier 
chapters  receive  a  fitting  explanation  when  regarded  as  refer- 
ences to  what  is  here  said.  Thus  iii.,  i,  and  v.,  12,  may 
allude  to  the  self-commendation  in  xi.  and  xii.  ;  and  v.,  13, 
may  refer  to  the  "  visions  and  revelations  "  of  xii.,  1-7.  An 
objection  to  this  hypothesis  is  found  in  the  want  of  any  defi- 
nite instruction  about  the  offender ;  but  this  part  might 
have  been  omitted  as  of  temporary  interest.  A  more  formid- 
able objection  is  the  difficulty  of  supposing  that  any  editor 
would  stupidly  patch  together  letters  which  existed  apart, 
and  in  doing  so  would  place  the  earlier  and  condemnatory 
one  last.  Moreover,  if  we  have  correctly  traced  the  order  of 
events,  this  portion  of  the  Epistle  must  be  subsequent  to  the 
lost  letter  ;  for  it  refers  to  the  gibe  about  the  feebleness  of 
Paul's  personal  appearance,  compared  with  the  force  of  his 
writing,  which  the  powerful  effect  of  this  letter  suggested. 
Undoubtedly  the  chapters  take  us  by  surprise  ;  but  it  may 
be  that,  if  we  knew  all  the  circumstances,  the  change  of 
tone  would  be  explained.  It  is  pretty  evident  that  Paul's 
feelings,  as  is  so  often  the  case  with  men  of  ardent  tempera- 
ment, were  subject  to  rather  violent  alternations  ;  and  it  is 
possible  that  some  new  and  agitating  reports  reached  him 
before  he  wrote  these  chapters.  Or,  without  any  fresh  cir- 
cumstances, Paul  may  have  been  aware  that,  although  the 
church,  as  a  whole,  had  been  restored  to  a  better  frame  of 
mind,  still  there  was  peril  from  the  persistent  efforts  of  a 
small  faction,  who  strove  to  undermine  his  influence  by 
appealing  to  the  authority  of  Christ,  being  led  by  Jewish- 
Christian  intruders,  who  represented  themselves  as  alone 
qualified  to  speak  in  the  Master's  name.  It  may  have  been 
one  object  of  the  Epistle  to  break  forever  the  power  of  this 
aggressive   and    unspiritual    faction  ;    and    Paul   may   have 


54  INTRODUCTION 

thought  it  best  to  deliver  the  attack  after  he  had  secured  the 
favourable  attention  of  the  church,  and  drawn  forth  princi- 
ples which  lay  at  the  root  of  the  division.  The  supposition 
that  these  chapters  are  a  subsequent  letter,  written  under 
new  conditions,  offers  no  advantage  if  the  foregoing  sugges- 
tion be  tenable,  or  if  we  suppose,  as  we  may  fairly  do,  that 
some  short  interval  elapsed  between  the  completion  of  chap- 
ter ix.  and  the  composition  of  x.' 

The  Epistle  has  a  unique  conclusion.  To  the  usual  words, 
"  The  grace  of  the  lyord  Jesus  Christ,"  Paul  adds,  out  of  the 
fulness  of  his  heart,  "  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  com- 
munion of  the  Holy  Spirit,  be  with  you  all."  Thus  this 
great  Christian  benediction  had  its  origin,  not  in  any  doc- 
trinal or  intellectual  interest,  but  in  the  sorrow  which  the 
divisions  and  the  impurity  of  the  Corinthian  disciples  ex- 
cited in  the  mind  of  Paul.  "The  grace  of  Christ"  might 
indeed  include  all  else  ;  but  on  this  occasion  he  could  not 
but  add  the  love  of  God,  which  would  bind  them  together 
into  a  true  fraternity,  and  the  communion  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
which,  dwelling  in  their  hearts,  would  save  them  from  all 
unclean  living,  and  join  them  to  one  another  and  to  God 
in  the  fellowship  of  a  common  sanctity.  Great  Christian 
thoughts  are  born  of  high  emotion,  and  they  lose  their 
identity  when  they  stiffen  into  formulae  from  which  the 
Divine  fire  has  departed. 

'  A  good  summary  of  the  arguments  iu  favour  of  the  hypothesis  that 
these  chapters  belong  to  the  intermediate  letter  may  be  seen  iu  Pro- 
fessor McGiffert's  History  of  Christianity  in  the  Apostolic  Age,  pp. 
311  sqq.,  and  arguments  on  the  other  side  in  Jiilicher's  Einleitiing  in 
das  N.  T.,  pp.  63  sqq.  Also  see  the  connection  of  thought  carefully 
explained  by  Weizsacker,  The  Apostolic  Age  of  the  Christian  Church, 
i-i  PP-  359  •^??-  (trans.).  There  is  a  very  able  discussion  in  support 
of  the  hypothesis,  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Kennedy,  iu  two  articles  in  The  Ex- 
positor, Fifth  Series,  vol.  vi.,  and  a  reply,  which  seems  to  me  hardly 
adequate,  by  the  Rev.  N.  J.  D.  White,  in  the  next  volume. 


FIRST  CORINTHIANS. 


ANAI.YSIS. 

Opening  oi^  the  Epistle,  i.,  1-9.    a.  Address  and  Greeting,  1-3. 
b.  Thanksgiving  for  the  grace  that  was  given  to  them, 

AND  assurance  that  GOD  WILL  CONFIRM  THEM  TO 
THE  END,  4-9. 

I.     The  DIVISION  INTO  PARTIES,  i.,  lO-iv.,  21. 

1.  lutroduction  to  the  subject,  i.,  10-16. 

2.  Warning  against  tbe  wisdom  of  tbe  world  in  contrast  with 

the  spiritual  power  of  the  Gospel,  i.,  17-ii.,  5  :  a.  The 
preaching  of  the  cross  does  not  appeal  to  human  wisdom, 
i.,  17-25  ;  b.  This  is  shown  by  the  actual  Christian  facts, 
i.,  26-31  ;  c.  Paul's  own  preaching  was  not  of  the  sophis- 
tical type,  ii.,  1-5. 

3.  The  method  in  which  the  Divine  wisdom  is  revealed,  ii., 

6-16. 

4.  Paul  could  give  only  elementary  teaching  to  the  Corinth- 

ians, owing  to  their  want  of  spirituality,  a  waut  which 
still  continued,  iii.,  1-4. 

5.  The  various  teachers  are  simply  ministers  of  God,  on  whom 

everything  depends,  iii.,  5-iv.,5:  a.  They  are  simply 
ministers,  engaged  in  one  work,  iii.,  5-9;  b.  They  are 
responsible  for  what  they  build  on  the  one  foundation, 
iii.,  10-15  ;  c.  No  one  should  set  up  his  own  wisdom,  and 
no  one  should  limit  himself  to  special  teachers,  iii.,  16- 
23  ;  d.  Nor  should  hasty  estimates  be  formed  of  the 
ministers  of  Christ,  iv.,  1-5. 

6.  The  instances  of  himself  and  Apollos  were  used  in  order 

to  withdraw  the  Corinthians  from  all  party  conceit,  iv., 
$-13. 

55 


56  FIRST  CORINTHIANS 

7.  Final  admonition,  and  reference  to  his  intended  coming, 
iv.,  14-21. 

II.    Remonstrances  against  various  sins,  v.,  i-vi.,  20. 

1.  The  case  of  incest,  v.,  1-8. 

2.  Correction  of  a  misunderstanding  of  a  previous  letter,  v., 

9-13- 

3.  They  ought  not  to  prosecute  their  brethren  before  heathen 

courts  ;   fraud  and  other  sins  rebuked,  vi.,  i-ii. 

4.  Argument  against  fornication,  vi.,  12-20. 

III.  Answers  to  questions  about  marriage,  vii.,  1-40. 

1.  Directions  for  married  people,  vii.,  1-7. 

2.  Various  directions  about  unmarried   and  married  people, 

and  about  mixed  marriages,  passing  into  advice  not  to 
change  one's  social  condition  owing  to  the  acceptance 
of  Christianity,  vii.,  8-24. 

3.  Directions  about  virgins,  and  about  remarriage,  vii.,  25-40. 

IV.  Answers  to  questions  arising  out  of  the  existence 

OF  idoi,aTry,  viii.,  i-xi.,  i, 

1.  Rule  in  regard  to  eating  sacrificial  meat,  viii.,  1-13. 

2.  Relinquishment  of  one's  own  rights  for  the  sake  of  others 

illustrated  by  the  example  of  the  Apostle,  ix.,  1-27. 

3.  Warning  from  the  example  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 

ness, X.,  1-13. 

4.  The  special  Christian  feast  and  idolatrous  feasts  are  quite 

incompatible,  x.,  14-22. 

5.  Rules  of  practice,  and  final  exhortation,  x.,  23-xi.,  i. 

V.    Disorders  in  the  meetings  of  the  Church,  xi.,  2-34. 

1.  Directions  about  the  conduct  of  women,  xi.,  2-16. 

2.  Directions  about  the  Lord's  Supper,  xi.,  17-34. 
VI.     SpiriTuai,  gifts,  xii.-xiv. 

1.  Statement  of  the  general  principle,  xii.,  1-3. 

2.  There  is  a  variety  of  gifts  under  the  direction  of  the  same 

Spirit,  xii.,  4-30. 

3.  The  praises  of  love,  xii.,  31-xiii.,  13  :  a.  Transition  from 

the  preceding,  xii.,  31  ;  b.  All  gifts  worthless  without 
love,  xiii.,  1-3  ;  c.  The  characteristics  of  love,  xiii.,  4-7  ; 
d.  The  eternit}'  of  love,  xiii.,  8-13. 

4.  The  inferior  value  of  the  gift  of  tongues,  xiv.,  1-25  :  a.  It 

did  not  conduce  to  the  edificatiou  of  the  Church,  xiv., 
2-19;  b.  It  was  not  profitable  to  unbelievers,  xiv.,  20-25. 


FIRST  CORINTHIANS  57 

5.  Rules  to  be  observed   in  speaking  with  tongues  and  pro- 

phesying, xiv.,  26-33. 

6.  Rules  about  women,  xiv.,  34-36. 

7.  Conclusion,  xiv.,  37-40. 
VII.    The  Resurrection,  xv. 

1.  Paul  had  preached  the  fact  of  Christ's    resurrection,  xv., 

i-ii. 

2.  If  there  is  no  resurrection,  Christ  was  not  raised,  and  the 

Christian's  faith  is  vaiu,  xv.,  12-19. 

3.  Assertion  of  the  fact,  and   outlook  into  the  future,  xv., 

20-28. 

4.  Further  arguments,  chiefly  from  the  demoralising  effect  of 

unbelief,  xv.,  29-34. 

5.  The  manner  of  the  resurrection,  and  the  nature  of  the  future 

body,  XV.,  35-49- 

6.  All  must  be  changed,  and  put  on  incorruptiou,  xv.,  50-58. 
VIII.    The  collection  for  Jerusalem,  xvi.,  1-4. 

Conclusion  :  Personal  references  and  salutations,  xvi.,  5-24. 


FIRST  CORINTHIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

The  Epistle  opens  with  an  address  and  greeting  (i.,  1-3),  ex- 
panded with  some  weighty  phrases,  owing,  we  may  suppose,  to 
the  gravity  of  the  subjects  with  w^hich  the  Apostle's  mind  is  full. 

Called  to  he  an  Apostle  (i.,  l),  an  Apostle  by  virtue  of  a 
Divine  call  (see  Rom.  i.,  i),  with  a  possible  allusion  to  the 
attacks  on  his  apostolic  authorit}-. 

Sosthenes  (i.,  l),  otherwise  quite  unknown.  The  descrip- 
tion of  him  as  "  the  brother  "  simply  marks  him  as  a  Christ- 
ian.    He  probably  had  some  connection  with  Corinth. 

The  Church  of  God  (i.,  2). — This  grand  name  is  frequently 
applied  to  the  Christian  communities.  It  reminds  us  of  the 
time  when  the  Jews  and  Christians  were  distinguished  from 
all  others  as  the  worshippers  of  one  God.  Christianit}-  was 
a  great  theistic  movement,  a  Divine  call  to  w(jrship  the 
Father  in  spirit  and  in  truth. 

With  all  that  call  upon  the  name  of  OJir  Lo7'd  fcsus  Christ 
(i.,  2). — In  this  great  Kpistle,  though  it  is  specially  addressed 
to  Corinth,  Paul  would  speak  to  all  who  bear  the  Christian 
name.  He  thus  reminds  the  Corinthians  that  they  are  part 
of  a  widely  extended  brotherhood,  to  which  they  owe  alle- 
giance. The  expression  ' '  call  upon  the  name ' '  is  borrowed 
from  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  Israelites  are  dis- 
tinguished as  those  who  call  upon  the  name  of  Yahveh,  and 
it  is  sometimes  said  that  it  therefore  implies  the  worship  of 

59 


6o  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  i.,  2. 

Christ  as  God.  It  does  not,  however,  in  itself  convey  the 
idea  of  worship,  but  indicates  the  distinctive  name  to  which 
appeal  was  made,  and  by  which  the  Christians  were  sepa- 
rated not  only  from  the  heathen,  but  from  the  Jews. 

The  word  translated  "  call  upon  "  is  used  technically  of  appealing 
to  a  higher  tribunal,  Acts  xxv.,  ii,  12,  21,  25  ;  sxvi.,  32  ;  xxviii.,  19  ; 
and  this  sense  is  applicable  to  i  Peter  i.,  17,  and  2  Cor.  i.,  23.  This 
sense,  with  a  slightly  figurative  turn,  is  often  applicable  in  the  Old 
Testament.  An  appeal  to  God  generally  implies  prayer  ;  but  the 
word  is  used  also  of  calling  upon  wisdom  (Prov.  ii.,  3),'  upon  death 
(Prov.  xviii.,  6),  upon  wretchedness  (Jer.  iv.,  20  ;  xx.,  8),  and  of  ap- 
pealing to  Egypt  (Hos.  vii.,  11),  also  of  deep  calling  upon  deep  (Ps. 
xli.,  8).  To  appeal  to  the  name,  or  call  on  the  name  (in  the  Hebrew, 
"to  call  in  the  name"),  is  not  the  same  as  to  worship  the  person 
bearing  that  name,  but  to  make  use  of  the  name  itself,  properly  to 
invoke  it  upon  oneself,  and  hence  to  bear  it  as  a  distinctive  mark. 
This  latter  use  is  illustrated  by  the  occurrence  of  the  passive  form,  as 
in  3  Kings  viii.,  43,  "Thy  name  has  been  called  upon  this  house," 
equivalent  to  "This  house  has  been  called  by  thy  name  "  :  see  also 
Dent,  xxviii.,  10;  2  Par.  vii.,  14;  Jer.  vii.,  10,  11,  14,  30;  xiv.,  9;  xv. 
16;  Dan.  ix.,  18,  19;  Amos  ix.,  12.  See  also  Ps.  xlviii.,  12,  "  they 
invoked  their  names  upon  their  lands";  that  is,  "they  called  their 
lands  after  their  own  names."  In  the  New  Testament  we  have  an 
instructive  example  in  James  ii.,  7,  "the  honourable  name  which  was 
called  upon  you,"  that  is  "by  which  ye  are  called  "  ;  and  in  Acts  ix., 
21,  we  have  the  expression  "  called  on  this  name,"  the  person  being 
understood,  showing  that  the  name  itself  is  the  important  thing.  I 
think,  then,  the  reference  here  is  to  the  name  to  which  Christians 
appealed,  and  which  they  invoked  upon  themselves  as  that  which  set 
them  apart  from  the  surrounding  world. 

The  Apostle's  goodwill  towards  his  readers  is  expressed  by  a 
thanksgiving  for  the  grace  with  which  they  were  enriched  (i.,  4-9). 

The  passage  is  remarkable  for  the  constant  repetition  of 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  probabl}'  to  mark  him  emphatic- 
ally as  the  head  of  the  Church,  in  opposition  to  all  inferior 

'  My  references  to  the  Old  Testament  are  to  the  LXX,  as  I  am  dis- 
cussing a  Greek  verb. 


i.,  4-10.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  6i 

leaders.  The  commendation  shows  that  the  Corhithian 
church  as  a  whole  was  regarded  by  Paul  with  satisfaction  ; 
but  it  is  noticeable  that  he  selects  for  particular  approval 
the  more  intellectual  qualifications,  utterance  and  know- 
ledge, and  the  "gifts"  which  were  not  alwaj-s  exercised  in 
the  most  spiritual  manner,  as  we  learn  from  xii.-xiv.  The 
Corinthians,  like  the  Thessalonians,  were  waiting  for  the 
second  coming  of  Christ,  which  was  believed  not  to  be  far  off. 

My  God  (i.,  4),  expressing  a  deep  sense  of  personal  rela- 
tionship. He  was  the  ultimate  source  of  all  the  grace  that 
came  to  the  world  in  Christ. 

The  testimojiy  of  Christ  (i.,  6),  that  is,  the  testimony  borne 
to  Christ  by  the  Christian  preachers. 

The  fellowship  of  his  Son  (i.,  9)  expresses  fellowship  with 
Christ  through  participation  in  his  spirit,  and,  through  him, 
membership  in  the  large  communion  of  all  who  are  his. 
The  word  fellowship  is  the  same  as  that  which  is  translated 
"communion  "  in  the  last  verse  of  the  Second  Epistle,  where 
substantially  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by  "  the  communion 
of  the  Holy  Spirit." 

After  this  general  introduction  we  proceed  at  once,  with  words  of 
exhortation,  to  the  first  of  the  several  subjects  treated  of  in  the 
Epistle,  the  division  of  the  church  into  parties  (i.,  lo-iv.,  21). 

For  a  brief  notice  of  opinions  about  these  parties  see  the  Introduc- 
tion. It  is  impossible  here  to  discuss  the  question  at  length,  and 
happily  the  spiritual  lesson  remains,  whatever  may  be  our  view. 

The  first  paragraph  introduces  the  subject,  and  mentions  the 
source  of  Paul's  information,  the  members  of  Chloe's  household  (i., 
10-17). 

We  do  not  know  who  Chloe  was  ;  but  she  must  have  been 
known  and  respected  by  the  church  at  Corinth.  On  some 
points  Paul  had  been  consulted  by  letter  ;  on  others  he  had 
more  private  information. 

Through  the  ?iame  of  our  Lord{\.,  lO). — He  gives  a  solemn 


62  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  i.,  10-13. 

emphasis  to  his  exhortation  by  appealing  to  the  one  name 
which  all  disciples  took  upon  their  lips. 

Divisions  (i.,  lo). — It  is  clear  that  these  "  schisms  "  (to  use 
the  Greek  word)  were  parties  within  the  same  body,  and  did 
not  amount  to  a  separation  into  rival  churches.  Indeed  the 
exhortation  seems  only  to  imply  that  such  divisions  might 
arise.  Cojitentions  (i.,  Il)  actually  existed  ;  and  these  in 
time  begot  enmity,  and  enmity  divisions. 

Each  one  of  you  saith  (i.,  12). — This  shows  how  far  spread- 
ing the  evil  was.  As  soon  as  favourite  teachers  were  com- 
pared everyone  joined  in  the  fray.  Some  clung  to  Paul,  the 
founder  of  the  church.  Others  were  captivated  by  the  elo- 
quence of  Apollos,  who  visited  Corinth  soon  after  Paul  had 
left  it,  and  who  no  doubt  taught  substantially  the  same 
doctrine  as  his  predecessor.  Then,  apparently,  some  Judais- 
ing  Christians  must  have  gained  influence,  and  brought  the 
name  of  Cephas  into  prominence.  It  would  seem  that  they 
must  have  attacked  Paul,  who  was  obliged  to  make  an 
elaborate  defence  of  his  apostolic  authority.  It  does  not  fol- 
low, however,  that  they  truly  represented  Peter,  who  may 
have  disapproved,  as  strongly  as  Paul,  of  the  use  of  his 
name  for  party  purposes.  Lastly,  some  used  the  name  of 
Christ  himself  in  a  factious  way,  perhaps  claiming  to  be  his 
followers  in  a  more  complete  sense  than  the  others. 

Is  Christ  divided?  (i.,  13). — Divisions  are  due  to  partial 
apprehension  :  is  Christ  divided,  so  that  each  faction  may 
have,  as  it  were,  a  piece  of  him  instead  of  receiving  him 
in  his  fulness  ? 

Was  Paul  crucified  for  you  f  (i.,  13). — As  he  is  attacking, 
not  a  party,  but  the  existence  of  parties,  Paul  properly 
chooses  his  own  name  rather  than  that  of  Apollos  or  Peter. 
As  we  shall  see,  he  could  defend  himself  when  necessary,  but 
it  was  a  profound  grief  to  him  that  his  name  should  be  used 
where  only  that  of  his  beloved  Master  ought  to  stand.  He 
is  therefore  glad  that  he  baptised  so  few,  as  the  administra- 


1.,  14-19-  FIRS 7^  CORINTHIANS  63 

tion  of  the  rite  by  him  might  have  caused  misunderstanding. 
For  Crispus  (i.,  14)  see  Acts  xviii.,  8  ;  for  Gains,  Rom.  xvi., 
23;  for  Stephanas  (i.,  16),  i  Cor.  xvi.,  15,  17. 

The  last  words  of  the  paragraph  bring  in,  rather  abruptly,  a  refer- 
ence to  the  manner  and  subject  of  Paul's  preaching.  To  this  he 
returns  farther  on ;  and  meanwhile  this  brief  allusion  serves  to  in- 
troduce a  warning  against  the  wisdom  of  the  world  in  contrast  with 
the  spiritual  power  of  the  Gospel  (i.,  17-ii.,  S). 

First,  the  Apostle  shows  that  the  preaching  of  the  cross  does  not 
appeal  to  human  wisdom  (i.,  17-25). 

The  contrast  is  between  a  spiritual  rehgion,  to  be  appre- 
Iiended  only  by  spiritual  faculties,  and,  on  the  one  hand,  an 
external  religion,  proud  of  its  sagacity  in  demanding  signs 
(miracles  and  prodigies)  before  it  will  believe,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  rational  opinion,  reached  ])y  the  difficult  path 
of  philosophical  speculation.  The  cross,  to  those  who  could 
see  it,  revealed  a  depth  of  self-sacrificing  love  for  sinful  man 
to  which  all  that  was  spiritual  in  them  bowed  down,  and 
which  became  thenceforward  a  Divine  power  in  their  lives, 
drawing  them  into  communion  with  that  eternal  love  of 
which  the  cross  was  the  supreme  earthly  manifestation.  But 
this  could  not  be  unveiled  except  to  the  spiritual  eye.  To 
the  ordinary  Jew,  a  Christ  on  a  cross  instead  of  on  a  throne 
of  glory,  the  greatest  life  given  as  a  ransom  for  many,  was  an 
offensive  absurdity.  To  the  Greek  with  his  love  of  fine  talk 
and  subtle  discussion,  the  direct  appeal  to  the  heart,  the  reve- 
lation of  God  to  the  higher  spiritual  affections,  was  foolish- 
ness. But  those  wdio  had  been  gifted  with  a  purer  insight 
foiuid  in  the  crucified  teacher  a  power  and  a  wisdom  with 
which  tliey  meant  to  conquer  the  world. 

/\rishi)ig-  (i.,  18). — This  is  probabl}-  used  in  reference  to 
the  coming  judgment ;  but  the  proposition  is  true  of  all  in 
whom  the  spiritual  faculties  are  in  a  state  of  decay. 

//  is  7vrittcn  (i.,  19). — The  quotation  is  from  Isaiah  xxix., 
14.     The  words  referred  to  tlie  formalism  and  faithlessness 


64  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  i.,  20-30. 

of  Israel.  Here  they  receive  a  wider  application.  The  pro- 
cess was  actually  going  on  before  the  eyes  of  the  Christian 
preachers  :  Christianity  was  regenerating  men,  while  philo- 
sophy was  impotent. 

Where  is  the  wise?  (i.,  20). — This  may  be  the  general 
term,  of  which  the  Jewish  scribe  and  the  Greek  disputer  are 
the  species. 

In  the  wisdom  of  God  (i.,  2l). — According  to  grammatical 
usage  this  must  mean,  not  "  through  the  wisdom,"  but  "  in 
the  midst  of  the  wisdom  of  God."  Though  encompassed  by 
His  wisdom,  of  which  the  tokens  are  on  every  side,  yet 
by  the  path  of  wisdom  the  world  had  not  found  Him.  Di- 
vine knowledge  enters  the  human  heart  by  a  different 
method. 

The  truth  of  the  foregoing  representation  is  established  by  an 
appeal  to  the  actual  facts  (i.,  26-31). 

The  description  here  given  of  the  social  position  of  the 
Christians  was  probably  true  wherever  they  were  found  ;  but 
it  may  have  been  particularly  so  at  Corinth,  where  the 
population  of  the  restored  city  was  largely  recruited  from 
the  class  of  freedmen  and  their  families. 

Wise  after  the  flesh  (i.,  26),  wise  merely  on  the  intellectual 
and  worldly  side,  but  without  the  wisdom  that  comes  from 
moral  and  spiritual  soundness.  Not  many  whom  the  world 
would  describe  as  wise  were  called  ;  and  there  were  few  men 
of  influence  and  rank  among  the  disciples. 

Chose  (i.,  27,  28). — Observe  the  repetition  of  this  word, 
emphasising  the  fact  that  the  initiative  in  spiritual  things  is 
with  God,  who  chooses  His  own  instruments  to  accomplish 
His  purposes,  and  makes  His  divine  power  more  manifest 
through  the  feebleness  of  His  visible  agents.  It  might  be 
better  to  translate  "elected,"  so  as  to  preserve  the  verbal 
connection  with  the  substantive  "  election." 

Of  him  are  ye  in  Christ  fesus  (i.,  30). — These  words  may 


i,  30-ii.,  2.  F//?ST  CORINTHIANS  65 

be  understood  in  two  ways  :  either,  by  virtue  of  being  in 
Christ  ye  are  sprung  from  God,  and  are  His  children  ;  or, 
from  Him  as  a  source,  by  virtue  of  His  election,  ye  are  in 
Christ  ("of"  being  in  the  Greek  "out  of"  or  "from"). 
The  latter  meaning  suits  the  context  best. 

Who  was  made  unto  us  wisdom  (i.,  30). — Wisdom  here 
stands  in  opposition  to  the  lower  wisdom  of  the  world,  and 
the  other  characteristics  are  added  to  complete  the  picture. 
This  form  of  expression  is  far  more  significant  than  a  state- 
ment that  Christ  imparted  to  us  wisdom  and  righteousness. 
These  things  are  not  detachable,  like  a  doctrine  or  a  cere- 
mony, but  are  modes  of  living  personality  ;  and  it  is  not  by 
receiving  certain  instructions  from  Christ,  but  by  the  com- 
munion of  his  spirit  with  our  own  that  we  become  wise  and 
righteous.  The  new  religion  implied  a  soul  transformed 
and  enkindled  by  the  Son  of  God. 

//  is  written  (i.,  31). — The  quotation  is  abridged  from  Jere- 
miah ix.,  24,  which,  with  the  previous  verse,  ought  to  be 
read  ;  for  here,  as  in  other  instances,  Paul  seems  to  have  had 
the  context  in  his  mind,  though  he  quotes  only  what  is  neces- 
sary for  his  immediate  purpose.  The  connection  of  thought 
shows  that  "  the  Lord  "  is  God,  as  in  the  original  passage. 

In  accordance  with  the  view  which  he  has  just  presented  of  the 
Gospel  Paul  reminds  his  readers  that  his  own  preaching  had  not 
been  of  the  rhetorical  and  sophistical  kind  (ii.,  1-5). 

Mystery  (ii.,  l). — The  reading  "  testimony,"  mentioned  in 
the  margin,  is  so  well  attested  that  it  is  preferred  by  some 
competent  scholars.  The  two  worqls  bear  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  one  another  in  the  Greek,  and  "  mystery  "  may 
be  borrowed  from  verse  7.  By  this  verse  we  must  explain 
it,  if  it  be  genuine.  If  we  rend  "  testimony,"  the  reference 
must  be  to  the  testimony  borne  to  God  in  the  Gospel, 

Jestis  Christ,  and  hi^n  crucified  {\\.^  2). — See  notes  on  i., 
17-25,  and  30.     This  was  fundamental ;  for  from  him  who 


66  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  3-5. 

had  no  perception  of  the  Divine  love  and  the  spiritual  grand- 
eur manifested  on  the  cross  the  Gospel  was  hidden.  The 
Apostle,  of  course,  does  not  mean  that  he  taught  nothing, 
for  he  alludes  farther  on  to  several  things  that  he  had  taught, 
but  rather  that  he  had  allowed  the  story  of  Christ  and  him 
crucified  to  bear  its  own  message  to  the  heart,  and  that  he 
had  not  accompanied  it  with  intellectual  theories  and  reason- 
ings. Yet  the  rich  contents  of  this  admitted  of  further  un- 
folding and  various  applications,  so  that  in  the  next  chapter 
Paul  describes  this  teaching  as  elementary,  fitted  for  babes 
in  Christ,  But  because  it  was  elementary,  it  was  necessary 
that  it  should  be  perfectly  mastered  before  an)^  edifice  of  dis- 
putable teaching  could  be  safely  reared  upon  it. 

I  was  ivith  you  in  iveakness  (ii.,  3). — From  the  connection  I 
think  the  Apostle  must  refer  not  to  conscious  weakness  and 
apprehension  in  relation  to  the  greatness  of  his  mission,  but 
to  something  in  his  mode  of  address  that  was  observable  by 
others.  Great  orators,  like  Cicero,  are  often  conscious  of 
fear  and  trembling  ;  nevertheless  they  command  the  pas- 
sions of  their  audience.  But  it  was  remarked  of  Paul  that 
his  bodily  presence  was  weak,  and  his  speech  of  no  account 
(2  Cor.  X.,  10).  Probably  he  seemed  timid  and  nervous  in 
manner,  and  could  not  attract  unsympathetic  listeners  by  his 
fluent  speech  and  sounding  platitudes.  But  if  the  heart  was 
responsive,  the  poor  speaker  was  forgotten  in  the  mighty 
play  of  new  emotion. 

Demonstration  of  the  Spirit  and  of  pozver  (ii.,  4). — Paul 
contra.sts  "  demonstration  "  with  the  mere  plausibility  of  the 
sophist ;  and  this  demonstration  proceeded  from  the  Spirit 
and  power  of  God. 

That  your  faith  should  not  stand  in  the  wisdom  of  men  (ii., 
5). — This  points  out  the  Divine  object  in  the  course  which 
has  been  described.  The  Gospel  came  through  what  ap- 
peared to  worldly  men  to  be  weakness  and  folly,  in  order 
that  the  believers'  faith  should  not  be  based  on  the  passing 


ii.,  6.  FIRS7'  CORINTHIANS  67 

arguments  of  a  favourite  leader.  The  proof  of  God  is  the 
felt  power  of  God  in  the  soul ;  and  those  who  have  felt  His 
living  presence  will  bow  together  before  Him,  and  not  dis- 
pute about  the  respective  merits  of  Paul  and  Apollos. 
Though  the  treatment  is  only  allusive,  the  main  theme  is 
never  forgotten  ;  but  the  whole  of  this  exalted  exposition 
tends  to  lift  the  readers  into  that  supreme  reverence  where 
the  petty  factions  of  partiality  and  self-will  disappear. 

Having  spoken  of  the  simplicity  and  apparent  folly  of  the  Gospel, 
Paul  subjoins  a  supplementary  paragraph,  showing  that  there  was 
a  higher  wisdom  than  that  of  the  world,  and  describing  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  revealed  (ii.,  6-16). 

The  passage  is  one  of  the  most  profound  in  the  Epistles, 
and,  though  the  general  sense  is  clear,  is  not  without  exe- 
getical  difficulties. 

Speak  ivisdom  among  the  perfect  (or  them  that  are  full-grown 
(ii^^  6).— Whichever  translation  we  adopt,  the  reference  must 
be  to  mature  Christians,  those  who  were  no  longer  "  babes 
in  Christ."  As  this  wisdom  was  reserved  for  the  more  ad- 
vanced, it  must  represent  something  different  from  that  of 
which  the  Apostle  has  hitherto  spoken,  and  cannot  mean 
that  the  foolishness  of  the  Gospel  was  really  wisdom  in  the 
eyes  of  men  competent  to  judge.  Christianity,  resting  on  a 
different  basis  £toni  that  of  philosophy,  nevertheless  had  its 
intellectual  side,  and  its  implicit  contents  might  be  unfolded 
into  a  system  of  wisdom.  This  statement,  then,  anticipates 
the  view  of  the  Alexandrian  theologians,  who  maintain  the 
legitimacy  of  a  Gno.sis,  an  intellectual  presentation  of  the 
contents  of  faith.  If  we  ask  for  examples  of  the  ' '  wisdom  ' ' 
of  which  Paul  speaks,  we  must  refer  to  his  Epistles  gener- 
ally, in  all  of  which  he  deals  with  a  variety  of  subjects  that 
are  not  obviously  included  in  "Jesus  Christ  and  him 
crucified." 

Not  of  this  world  (ii.,  6),  rather  "  this  age,"  referring  to  the 
present,  in  contrast  with  the  future  age  after  the  return  of 


68  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  7. 

Christ.     Christian  wisdom  followed  altogether  diflferent  lines. 

Rulers  .  .  .  which  are  coming  to  nought  (\\.,  6). — Some 
understand  this  of  demonic  powers ;  but  the  context  is 
against  this  meaning.  Paul  has  expressed  the  view  that  the 
great  things  of  the  world  are  to  come  to  nought,  in  i.,  28, 
and  he  here  repeats  the  thought.  We  need  not,  however, 
limit  the  word  to  "  rulers  "  in  the  strict  sense  :  the  statement 
is  general  ;  those  who  governed  the  present  order  of  things 
were  already  losing  their  hold,  and  the  new  kingdom  of 
righteousness  was  making  its  way  against  them. 

God's  wisdom  (ii.,  7)- — Paul  felt  that  the  truths  which  he 
unfolded  were  more  than  human  speculation.  As,  in  the 
field  of  science,  Kepler  exclaimed,  ' '  O  God,  I  think  Thy 
thoughts  after  Thee,"  so  in  the  field  of  morals  and  religion 
the  Apostle  was  visited  with  thoughts  which  came  to  him 
with  the  authority  of  eternal  truth.  And  this  confidence  of 
his  is  not  proved  to  be  a  vain  thing  because  he  had  the 
treasure  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  to  some  extent  the  wisdom 
of  the  passing  moment  succeeded  in  impressing  its  shape 
upon  his  visions. 

In  a  mystery  (ii.,  7),  that  is,  in  the  form  or  manner  of  a 
mystery,  something  hidden  from  the  mass  of  men,  and  re- 
vealed only  to  the  initiated.  There  is  no  reason  for  assum- 
ing a  reference  to  esoteric  doctrine,  reserved  for  a  particular 
class  of  Christians.  The  allusion  is  rather  to  the  newness 
of  Christian  truth,  which  was  taught  to  all  disciples  so  far 
as  they  were  able  to  receive  it.  In  relation  to  the  outside 
world  it  was  a  mysterj',  and  up  to  the  present  time  had  been 
hidden. 

Which  God  foreordained  (ii.,  7). — Strictly  speaking  the 
wisdom  itself  cannot  be  foreordained,  but  only  its  mani- 
festation in  the  world.  It  is  one  of  Paul's  favourite  thoughts 
that  the  world's  history  was  controlled  by  a  Divine  purpose, 
of  which  the  ultimate  issue  was  the  spiritual  glory  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God. 


ii.,  8-10.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  69 

They  would  not  have  crucified  the  Lord  of  glory  {n.^  8). — 
Jesus  is  here  described  as  one  to  whom  that  spiritual  glory- 
especially  belonged.  He  was  the  Master  and  Leader  of  the 
new  community  of  God's  children.  Observe,  Paul  ascribes 
the  crucifixion,  not  to  hatred  of  goodness,  but  to  spiritual 
blindness.  Such  blindness,  however,  may  imply  various 
degrees  of  guilt. 

As  it  is  written  (ii.,  9). — The  passage  quoted,  evidently  as 
Scriptural  authority,  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament  ; 
but  it  is  perhaps  a  reminiscence  of  Isaiah  Ixiv.,  4.  Some 
have  supposed  it  to  be  derived  from  an  apocryphal  book.' 
In  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  words  two  points  must  be 
noted  :  first,  that  the  things  in  question  are  what  God  pre- 
pared for  them  that  love  Him,  all  the  spiritual  enrichment 
that  comes  from  the  communion  of  Divine  love  ;  secondly, 
that  the  discernment  of  these  things  does  not  come  through 
the  ordinary  channels  of  knowledge,  the  senses  and  the 
intellect,  which  deal  with  more  extraneous  and  material 
subjects.  "The  heart"  is  regarded  as  the  organ  of  the 
understanding. 

Unto  us  (ii.,  lO). — The  immediate  reference  is  to  Paul  and 
other  Christian  teachers,  as  we  see  from  verse  13  ;  but  we 
miss  the  deepest  lesson  of  the  passage  if  we  limit  the  truth 
here  enunciated,  and  make  it  refer  only  to  a  miraculous 
communication  of  knowledge  to  the  Apostles.  Paul  tells  his 
readers  tliat  the  Spirit  of  God  dwells  in  them  (iii..  16).  He 
is  unfolding  a  spiritual  law,  and  what  he  says  of  himself  is 
true  of  others  in  their  .several  degrees. 

Revealed  them  through  the  Spirit  (ii.,  lo).— Paul  nowhere 
defines  his  doctrine  of  the  Spirit,  and  any  explanation  must 

'  There  is  a  striking  parallel  to  the  first  part  in  the  poem  of  Eui- 
pedocles,  IlEftl  q)v6eGj?: — ro  6'  ovXoi^  iTtsvxsrai  svpeTv 

AurGJi-     ovv  EitiSspKTa.  nxd'  a.v5pa6iv  ovr  IndKovCra 
Ovre  voo)  irEpiXijitTa. 
Quoted  by  Sellar,  The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,  p.  295. 


70  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  II. 

be  to  a  certain  degree  tentative.  Whatever  else  it  may  em- 
brace, I  think  it  expresses  the  essential  character  of  the 
Divine  personality,  breathed  forth  upon  the  souls  of  men, 
and  so  passing  into  human  consciousness.  It  is  through 
this  indwelling  in  the  conscious  life  that  it  becomes  the  re- 
vealing organ  of  Divine  knowledge  ;  and  it  can  reveal,  be- 
cause, being  a  Divine  essence,  it  explores  the  deep  places  of 
God.  According  to  this  explanation  it  includes  the  self- 
consciousness  of  God  ;  but  it  also  denotes  that  whereby  God 
enters  into  immediate  communion  with  man.  1  do  not 
think,  however,  that  it  is  used  here  of  the  third  person  of 
the  Trinity  in  the  sense  of  the  later  theology.  For,  first,  it 
is  clearly  regarded  as  analogous  to  the  spirit  in  man  ;  and 
even  if  we  adopt  here  the  Pauline  trichotomy  into  spirit, 
soul,  and  body,  we  cannot  assign  distinct  personality  to  the 
spirit.  This  division  of  human  nature,  instead  of  furnishing 
an  analogy,  presents  a  marked  contrast  ;  for,  according  to 
it,  man  consists  of  three  substances  in  one  person,  not  of 
three  persons  in  one  substance.  Secondl}^  it  is  said  that 
none  but  the  Spirit  of  God  knoweth  the  things  of  God.  But 
Paul  would  surely  never  have  ascribed  this  knowledge  only 
to  the  third  person,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  two.  The 
meaning  of  this  statement  we  must  proceed  to  examine  in 
•the  following  verse. 

77/1?  spirit  of  the  man  (ii.,  II). — We  must  observe  in  this 
verse  the  want  of  logical  coherence.  We  should  expect, 
not  "who  among  men,"  but  "what  in  man?"  or,  instead 
of  "save  the  spirit,"  "save  through  the  spirit."  This 
shows  that  we  must  not  always  insist  very  strictly  upon  the 
form  of  expression.  Next  we  must  inquire  what  is  meant 
by  the  spirit  of  man.  Does  it  mean  the  concrete  third  ele- 
ment in  each  man,  the  spirit  as  distinct  from  the  lower  soul? 
I  think  not  :  for,  first,  it  would  have  been  more  natural  to 
write  simply  "  his  spirit  "  instead  of  the  longer  phrase  before 
us ;  and,  secondly,  though  Paul  would  have  denied  that  any 


ii.,  12.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  71 

but  the  spiritual  could  have  a  perfect  knowledge  of  man,  he 
would  hardly  have  committed  himself  to  a  proposition  which 
would  seem  to  deny  all  knowledge  of  human  things  to  men 
in  whom  only  the  lower  mind  was  awake.  He  is  evidently 
making  a  statement  which  he  expects  to  be  recognised  as 
true  as  soon  as  it  is  presented.  I  think,  therefore,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  take  "  spirit  "  in  a  general  sense,  the  nature  or  essence 
of  humanity,  "the  spirit  of  man"  (as  the  Greek  may  be 
translated),  in  opposition  to  any  spirit  that  is  lower  than 
human.  The  proposition,  then,  is  equivalent  to  this  :  it  is 
only  by  possessing  the  spirit  of  humanity  that  we  can  know 
humanity.  It  may  be  objected  to  this  that  the  spirit  is  said 
to  know,  and  therefore  it  must  be  the  individual  mind.  But 
we  have  seen  that,  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  grammarian, 
the  structure  is  faulty  ;  and,  moreover,  the  personification  is 
a  very  natural  one.  No  one  would  be  puzzled  if  we  said 
that  malice  could  not  know  love,  that  stinginess  could  not 
understand  generosity.  Interpreting  the  sentence  thus  we 
find  that  every  word  is  needful,  and  we  are  led  on  by  a  neces- 
sary inference  to  a  profound  truth  :  as  nothing  beneath  man 
can  know  man,  so  only  the  Spirit  of  God  can  know  God  ; 
and  man  can  know  God  only  so  far  as  this  Spirit  reveals 
itself  to  human  consciousness.  Justice,  holiness,  love,  dwell 
eternal  in  the  heart  of  God  ;  and  these  depths  of  His  being 
cannot  make  themselves  known  through  the  path  of  intel- 
lectual teaching,  but  only  by  unveiling  their  faces  to  the 
inward  eye. 

'^The  spirit  of  the  world''  (ii.,  12),  the  spirit  or  character 
which  we  still  describe  as  worldly,  intent  on  transient  things, 
and,  in  its  small  wisdom,  blind  to  the  glory  of  God.  This 
application  of  the  word  "spirit"  confirms  our  previous 
interpretation. 

''The  spirit  which  is  of  God''  (ii.,  12),  literally  "  out  of 
God,"  breathed  forth,  as  it  were,  from  the  depths  of  His  own 
being:. 


72  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  13-16. 

^'Comparing  spiritual thmgs  with  spiritual ' '  (ii.,  13). — The 
meaning  is  uncertain  ;  but  perhaps  the  translation  ' '  com- 
bining "  (which  the  Greek  admits)  best  suits  the  context, — 
combining  spiritual  truths  with  spiritual  words. 

' '  The  natural  man  ' '  (ii.,  14),  that  is,  the  man  whose  govern- 
ing principle  is  the  soul  (in  Paul's  trichotomy),  all  the  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  life  which  is  beneath  the  spiritual. 
Why  such  a  man  cannot  know  spiritual  things  is  sufficiently 
apparent  from  the  remarks  alread)^  made. 

''Judgeth  all  things'^  (ii.,  15):  better,  "judgeth  of  all 
things."  In  opposition  to  the  "  natural  man,"  the  spiritual 
not  only  sees  things  which  are  hidden  from  the  former,  but 
is  raised  altogether  to  a  higher  plane  of  judgment.  The  ex- 
tent of  "all  things"  must  of  course  be  limited,  though  not 
very  precisely,  by  the  context.  While  the  spiritual  man  is 
thus  able  to  judge,  he  is  himself  judged  of  by  none  ;  men  of  a 
lower  type  cannot  interpret  him  correctly.  It  is  not  very 
evident  why  this  latter  statement  is  inserted  ;  but  I  think  it 
refers  to  the  divisions  at  Corinth,  and  prepares  the  way  for 
the  rebuke  of  the  next  chapter.  The  unspiritual  Corinthians 
were  unable  to  judge  of  the  very  men  whom  they  were  ex- 
tolling as  leaders.  Those  who  were  claiming  a  pre-eminence 
for  Paul  onlyproved  that  they  were  incapable  of  under.standing 
him.     Compare  iv.,  3. 

''For  who  hath  hiown  the  mind  of  the  Lord,  that  he  should 
instruct  him  ?  "  (ii.,  16). — This  is  quoted  from  Isaiah  xl.,  13. 
We  should  expect  here  ' '  the  spirit ' '  instead  of  ' '  the  mind  ' ' ; 
amd  the  word  is  actually  "spirit"  in  the  Hebrew,  but  the 
Lxx  have  translated  it  by  "  mind,"  and  Paul  follows  them. 
"Mind"  differs  in  meaning  from  "spirit,"  and  denotes 
rather  the  reason  and  thought  of  God,  but  it  must  be  here 
used  as  substantially  equivalent.  It  is  generally  assumed 
that  this  verse  is  intended  to  prove  the  statement  immedi- 
ately preceding :  no  one  knows  the  mind  of  the  lyord,  and 
therefore,  as  we  have  that  mind,  no  one  can  judge  of  us.     I 


iii.  1-4.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  73 

cannot  help  thinking,  however,  that  the  statement  is  far  too 
subordinate  to  call  for  this  scriptural  proof,  and  that  Paul 
would  have  shrunk  from  implying  that  he  himself  was  as 
inscrutable  as  the  mind  of  God.  I  suppose,  then,  that  the 
proof  refers  to  the  whole  of  the  preceding  passage,  the  pur- 
port of  which  it  briefly  sums  up  :  not  even  the  wise  and 
powerful  of  this  world  could  know  the  wisdom  and  mind  of 
God  ;  but  we  have  the  mind  of  Christ,  which  was  filled  with 
the  Spirit  of  God,  and  therefore  we  are  able  with  him  to  look 
into  the  deep  things  of  God. 

Having  laid  down  general  principles,  Paul  now  comes  more  di- 
rectly to  the  question  of  divisions,  and  secures  an  easy  transition  by 
reminding  his  readers  of  their  immature  condition  when  he  was 
among  them.  Their  jealousy  and  strife  proved  that  this  immaturity 
had  not  yet  passed  away  (iii.,  1-4). 

'' CaniaV  (iii.,  I,  3).— This  is  a  harsher  word  than  its 
Greek  equivalent,  for  we  apply  it  only  to  an  excessive  domi- 
nance of  the  bodily  appetites.  In  Paul  it  seems  to  refer  to 
the  whole  tendency  of  life  and  thought,  as  governed  by  lower 
impulses  and  worldly  motives  rather  than  by  the  spirit. 
Thus  in  the  present  passage  "jealousy  and  strife"  prove  the 
existence  of  a  carnal  temper,  for  these  subserve  no  higher 
than  earthly  ends,  and  are  impossible  to  genuine  spirituality. 
' "  Are  ye  not  men  ? ' '  (iii.,  4)  ;  that  is,  just  like  others,  in  no 
way  raised  above  the  common  crowd.  The  use  of  the  word 
in  this  sense  is  very  significant,  for  it  implies  that  the 
spiritual  man  is,  in  a  manner,  more  than  man  ;  he  is  a 
temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Later  theologians,  though  still 
in  the  centuries  when  Christianity  was  young,  expressed  a 
similar  thought  by  the  bold  assertion  that  God  had  become 
man  in  order  that  man  might  become  God. 

In  order  to  see  the  folly  and  impropriety  of  the  divisions  it  was 
necessary  to  take  a  just  view  of  the  function  of  the  Christian 
preachers:  they  were  simply  ministers  of  Christ,  and  were  labour- 
ing for  far  other  than  their  own  ends  ;  each  had  his  own  gift,  and 
contributed  accordingly  to  the  building  up  of  the  Church  (iii.,  5-iv.,5). 


74     *  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  iii,,  5-15. 

''  Apollos  .  .  .  Paul"  (iii.,  5). — He  selects  these  two 
as  having"  both  laboured  in  person  at  Corinth.  Peter  was 
known  to  the  Corinthians  only  by  repute. 

"■  The  Lord"  (iii.,  5). — It  is  generally  thought  that  "the 
Lord"  here  means  God,  and  not  Christ,  as  in  the  context 
only  God  is  referred  to.  This  meaning  might  be  supported 
by  an  appeal  to  Romans  xii.,  3.  But  Paul  so  habitually  re- 
serves the  title  Lord  for  Christ  when  he  is  not  influenced  by 
an  Old  Testament  passage  that  I  am  inclined  to  think  the 
reference  here  is  to  Christ.  The  specially  Christian  gifts 
were  bestowed  and  took  form  through  him,  so  that  he  might 
be  spoken  of  as  the  giver.     Compare  Eph.  iv.,  11. 

One  (iii.,  8). — He  who  plants  and  he  who  waters  are  one  in 
their  work  and  their  aim,  each  labouring  for  the  harvest 
which  God  alone  can  give.  The  only  distinction  is  in  the  in- 
dividual toil,  which  will  receive  its  proportionate  reward. 

We  are  God^ s  fellow-workers  (iii.,  9). — Notice  the  emphatic 
repetition  of  "God"  to  whom  every  thing  is  to  be  ulti- 
mately referred.  The  Church  did  not  belong  to  this  man  or 
to  that,  but  to  God.  We  fall  below  this  truth  whenever  as 
leaders  we  strive  for  our  own  ends  or  as  disciples  disputa- 
tiously  exalt  one  leader  above  another. 

The  notion  of  a  building  suggests  the  comparison  which 
follows  (iii.,  10-15).  There  is  only  one  foundation  ;  but  va- 
rious kinds  of  structure  ma}^  be  reared  upon  it,  some  of 
finest  quality,  some  of  worthless  rubbish.  The  day  of  judg- 
ment, which  will  dawn  upon  the  world  in  fire,  will  test  each 
man's  work.  That  which  is  sound  and  good  will  remain  un- 
harmed ;  the  bad  will  perish  in  the  fire,  but  the  unskilful 
builder  himself  will  be  saved,  like  one  escaping  through  the 
flames.  We  must  observe  that  as  the  building  is  figurative, 
the  fire  too  must  be  figurative.  The  general  effect  of  this 
paragraph  is  to  point  out  the  responsibility  of  teachers  ;  but 
to  fit  it  into  the  argument  I  think  we  must  suppose  a  latent 
reference  to  the  real  leaders  of  the  parties,  who  were  resident 


iii.,  16-19.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  75 

in  Corinth,  and  who  are  clearly  referred  to  in  vs.  18.  The 
error  to  which  Paul  alludes  may  be  moral  and  spiritual  rather 
than  doctrinal,  though  I  see  no  reason  for  excluding  the  lat- 
ter. We  must  observe  that  Jesus  Christ  himself  is  the 
foundation  ;  theories  about  him  are  superstructure. 

From  the  teachers  Paul  passes  to  the  community,  and  in 
doing  so  reverts  to  the  concluding  figure  of  vs.  9,  "Ye  are 
God's  building"  (iii.,  16-23).  Not  only  were  they  reared 
by  God,  and  not  by  man,  but  they  were  God's  temple,  and 
were  hol}^  through  the  presence  of  His  Spirit ;  so  that  if  any- 
one destroyed  that  temple  by  splitting  it  up  into  incoherent 
parts,  God  would  destroy  him.  The  warning  is  deeply  im- 
pressive, though  the  nature  of  the  destruction  is  not  speci- 
fied. May  we  not  say  that  the  man  will  lose  the  sense 
of  the  Divine  presence,  and  be  given  over  to  his  own  vain 
wisdom  ? 

Let  no  man  deceive  hhnself  {{\\.^  18). — These  words  may 
be  applied  to  what  has  just  been  said, — let  no  man  imagine 
that  he  can  evade  his  responsibilit}^  ;  but  probably  the  refer- 
ence intended  is  wholly  to  what  follows.  The  conceit  of 
wisdom,  as  wisdom  was  estimated  in  "  the  present  age,"  was 
a  piece  of  pure  self-deception  ;  and  the  onl}'  waj^  to  become 
really  wi.se  was  to  cast  ofi"this  conceit,  and  become  what  the 
world  would  call  a  fool,  j-ielding  himself  in  humility  to  the 
leading  of  the  Spirit.  In  the  judgment  of  God  the  judg- 
ment of  men  is  reversed,  and  what  is  called  wisdom  is  really 
folly. 

It  is writk7i  {{{{.,  ig). — The  first  quotation  is  from  Job  v., 
13.  Commentators  quote  from  Plato,  "all  knowledge,  sep- 
arated from  righteousness  and  other  excellence,  appears  to 
be  craftiness,  not  wisdom."  The  quotation  in  the  next 
ver.se  is  from  Psalm  xciv.,  11.  Paul  changes  "man"  into 
"  wise,"  showing  here  as  elsewhere  that  he  is  not  particular 
about  the  letter  of  Scripture,  if  he  gives  the  general  sense, 
and  the  pas.sage  serves  to  illustrate  his  thought. 


76  FIRST  CORINTHIANS      iii.,  2i-iv.,  I. 

Let  no  one  glory  in  men  (iii.,  21). — This  is  an  inference  from 
what  has  just  been  said:  if  the  Divine  estimate  of  men  is 
such,  there  is  nothing  to  glor}^  in.  But  another  reason 
is  added.  This  glorying  in  particular  men  was  only  cutting 
oneself  off  from  the  vast  treasure  that  in  truth  belongs  to  us. 
We  may  learn  from  every  teacher,  yea,  from  the  universe 
itself,  and  all  its  solemn  incidents.  This  grand  utterance 
admits  of  wide  application,  and  reaches  its  highest  truth 
when  in  utter  self-surrender  the  child  can  say  to  the  heav- 
enly Father,  "All  mine  are  Thine,  and  Thine  are  mine." 
But  men  lo.se  this  infinite  wealth  in  the  petty  claims  of  self. 

Ye  are  Christ's  (iii.,  23). — The  thought  seems  to  be, — 
teachers  belong  to  you,  not  you  to  the  teachers  ;  but  you  be- 
long to  Christ,  and  not  to  those  who  are  only  his  messengers. 
I  think  there  must  also  be  a  delicate  allu.sion  to  the  Christ- 
party.  If  it  could  be  said  generally,  "Ye  are  Christ's,"  no 
one  had  a  right  to  say,  "  /  am  Christ's  "  in  distinction  from 
others  who  were  no  less  so. 

Christ  is  God' s  (in.,  23). — Thus  the  thoughts  are  carried  up 
to  Him  on  whom  all  alike  depend,  and  in  whose  presence  all 
earthly  distinctions  vanish.  As  usual  in  Paul,  Christ  is 
markedly  distinguished  from  God.  To  say  that  God  means 
only  the  first  person  of  the  Trinity,  or  that  Christ  is  spoken 
of  only  in  his  human  nature,  or  that,  though  as  the  Son  he 
belongs  to  the  Father,  he  is  nevertheless  co-eternal  and  co- 
equal, appears  to  me  (though  I  am  sure  no  irreverence  is  in- 
tended) to  be  irreverent  supplements  to  the  great  Apostle's 
teaching. 

As  no  one  was  to  glory  in  men,  Paul  shows,  by  waj^ 
of  contrast,  the  view  which  ought  to  be  taken  of  the  Christ- 
ian preachers  :  they  were  simply  stewards  who  had  to 
administer  what  was  entrusted  to  them,  and  no  one  was 
competent  to  judge  of  them  except  the  Master  who  employed 
them  (iv.,  I-5). 

Ministers   (iv.,  l).  —  The    word     so    translated    appears 


iv.,  1-5.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  77 

only  here  in  Paul's  Epistles,  but  does  not  differ  much  in 
meaning  from  other  words  which  have  the  same  translation. 

The  mysteries  of  God  {w.,  l)  ;  that  is,  the  truths  which  had 
been  hidden,  but  were  now  revealed.  The  application  of  the 
word  to  the  sacraments  is  of  later  date. 

That  a  man  be  found  faithful  (iv.,  2). — This  is  the  one  thing 
necessary  in  a  steward.  He  is  not  to  adopt  measures  of  his 
own,  but  simply  to  discharge  with  fidelity  the  duties  entrusted 
to  him.  It  is  implied  that  only  his  master  can  judge  how 
faithful  he  has  been  ;  for  he  only  knows  what  he  has 
committed  to  liis  trust. 

fudged  of  you  (iv.,  3)  ;  better  "judged  of  by  you."  The 
word  here  used  does  not  in  the  least  imply  adverse  judgment, 
but  an  examination  or  judgment,  to  see  how  the  thing  really 
is.  Examples  of  its  use  may  be  seen  in  Acts  xxi  v. ,  8,  xxviii. , 
18  ;  I  Cor.  ii.,  14,  15,  x.,  25,  27,  and  ix.,  3  (where  the  context 
gives  it  a  depreciating  sense).  It  is  used  by  Paul  only  in  this 
Epistle.  Here  the  following  verses  seem  to  show  that  it  refers 
to  favourable  judgment :  it  gives  me  little  pleasure  that  you 
should  boast  about  me,  for  you  cannot  know  how  faithful  I 
have  been  ;  nay,  I  do  not  know  myself. 

Man's  judgment  {yj.^"^  \  literally  "a  human  day,"  the 
word  "  day  "  being  apparently  used  technically,  as  in  iii.,  13. 
for  a  day  that  comes  with  the  revealing  light  of  judgment. 

Yet  am  I  not  hereby  fistifed  (iv.,  4). — The  fact  that  even  my 
own  conscience  does  not  accuse  me  of  unfaithfulness  is  not 
sufficient;  for  I  may  be  mistaken.  To  one  who  looks  for  a 
Divine  judgment,  all  human  judgments  become  insignificant, 
and  he  knows  that  faults  may  come  to  light  which  he  himself 
has  failed  to  see. 

The  Lord  {vf .,  4,  5)  ;  clearly  Christ,  through  whom,  accord- 
ing to  Rom.  ii.,  16,  God  will  judge  the  secrets  of  men, 

Paul  has  spoken  of  himself  and  Apollos,  but  he  has  transferred 
his  remarks  to  them  simply  as  examples :  he  has  referred  to  the 
leaders  and  indeed  the  members  of  parties  generally  ;  and  he  now 


78  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  iv.,  6-15. 

attacks  the  conceit  and  factiousness  of  the  Corinthians  with  the 
keenest  irony  (iv.,  6-13). 

Not  to  go  beyond  the  things  7vhich  are  written  (iv.,  6)  ; 
literally,  "  you  might  learn  this,  '  do  not  go  beyond,  etc.,'  " 
which  gives  the  impression  that  the  words  were  a  current 
saying.  "  Which  are  written  "  must,  by  usage,  refer  to  the 
Old  Testament ;  and,  in  the  present  connection,  Paul  may 
allude  to  such  passages  as  he  has  quoted  in  i.,  19,  31,  iii.,  19, 
20. 

For  the  one  against  the  other  (iv.,  6). — The  meaning  prob- 
ably is  that  no  one  should  be  puffed  up  on  behalf  of  any 
particular  teacher,  against  his  neighbour  who  prefers  some 
other  teacher.  "  The  other  "  is  rendered  "  his  neighbour  " 
in  vi.,  I,  correctly. 

Who  maketh  thee  to  differ  f  (iv.,  7)-  —  Evidently  men  prided 
themselves  on  following  certain  leaders,  and  looked  down  on 
those  who  were  not  of  the  party.  But  supposing  a  man  has 
some  wisdom,  it  is  no  ground  for  vanity,  for  a  man  has 
nothing  precious  that  he  has  not  received  from  God.  This 
is  the  basis  for  humility  in  all  things. 

Already  are  ye  filled  {iv.,  8).  —  "You  imagine  you  have  all 
the  glory  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  ; — I  wish  you  had,  and 
we  Apostles  should  be  in  a  very  different  position." 

The  Apostles  last  of  all  (iv.,  9)  ;  that  is,  as  the  last  and 
lowest  of  men.  The  details  of  the  following  description  are 
sufficiently  clear.  "Fools"  and  "wi.se,"  "weak"  and 
"strong"  must  be  understood  from  the  contrast  already 
drawn  between  the  weakness  and  folly  of  the  Gospel  in  the 
eyes  of  men,  and  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  world. 

Paul  could  not  retain  his  irony  and  indignation  long;  so  novy  he 
changes  his  tone,  and  ends  this  portion  of  his  letter  with  a  kindly 
admonition,  not,  however,  unaccompanied  by  a  threat  that  he  would 
use  his  authority  if  he  found  it  necessary  (iv.,  14-21). 

Tiito's  (iv.,  15),  a  word  properly  applied,  not  to  teachers, 
but  to  slaves  who  had  the  charge  of  children,  and  conducted 


iv.,  16-21.  FIRS 7^  CORINTHIANS  79 

them  to  school  ;  but  here  we  may  give  it  rather  a  wider 
meaning,  as  it  clearly  refers  to  all  who  taught  the  Corinthians 
subsequently  to  their  conversion  by  Paul,  who,  as  their 
founder,  stood  to  them  in  the  relation  of  father. 

Be yc  imitators  of  me  (iv.,  16)  ;  that  is,  in  the  matter  of 
which  he  is  treating.  Let  them  equally  abjure  self-import- 
ance and  worldly  wisdom. 

For  this  cause  (iv.,  17)  ;  to  enable  3'ou  to  imitate  me. 
Timothy  had  probably  been  despatched  after  the  news  of  the 
divisions  had  been  received  from  the  people  of  Chloe.  See 
Introduction. 

My  ways  tvhich  be  in  Christ,  even  as  I  teach  everywhere 
(iv.,  l7).^We  must  still  interpret  by  reference  to  the  main 
subject.  Paul  sought  no  personal  pre-eminence  in  his  manner 
of  teaching  ;  he  sunk  himself  in  his  message  ;  he  wanted  no 
Pauline  party  ;  and  if  he  was  sometimes  obliged  to  assert  his 
authority,  it  was  only  when  vital  interests  seemed  to  be  at 
stake,  and  the  Gospel  to  which  his  life  was  given  was  attacked 
in  his  person. 

If  the  Lord  ivill  (iv.,  19). — Here,  as  elsewhere,  it  seems 
doubtful  whether  God  or  Christ  is  meant.  I  think,  when 
there  is  no  clear  reason  to  the  contrary,  "  the  Lord,"  stands 
for  Christ.  Paul,  I  think,  believed  that  the  movements  of 
the  Apostles  were  still,  in  some  wa}',  under  the  direction  of 
Christ,  and  he  could  not  feel  sure  that  he  might  not  be 
summoned  elsewhere. 

Not  the  word  .  .  .  but  the  power  (iv.yiqi). — "Power" 
can  hardly  be  used  here  of  miraculous  gifts,  but  has  a  gen- 
eral sense,  spiritual  force  of  character,  in  opposition  to  mere 
talk.  It  was  the  powerful  spell  which  all  men  feel  in  a  godly 
life,  and  not  fine  speeches,  that  proved  the  reign  of  God 
within  the  soul. 

With  a  rod  (iv.,  2l)  ;  literally,  "in  a  rod,"  illustrating 
the  use  of  the  preposition  "  in."  See  also  v.,  8,  where  again 
"in  "  is  translated  by  "  with." 


8d  FIRST  CORINTHIANS        iv.,  2i-v.,  i. 

Ift  love  and  a  spirit  of  meekness  (iv.,  2l). — The  combi- 
nation of  the  "  spirit  of  meekness  "  with  "love"  shows  that 
it  denotes  a  moral  quality,  and  that  "  spirit "  is  used,  just  as 
we  use  it,  to  express  the  tone  and  character  of  mind,  as  when 
we  say  a  man  acted  in  a  bad  spirit,  or  showed  a  kindly 
spirit.  "Spirit"  is  properly  the  breath  or  efiQuence  that 
goes  forth  from  anything,  and  is  thus  an  expression  of  its 
essential  principle.  This  verse  properly  forms  the  close  of 
the  section  dealing  with  parties,  and  shows  what  a  serious 
evil  Paul  considered  them  to  be  ;  but  nevertheless  the  grave 
doubt  which  it  suggests  may  have  been  partly  induced  by 
the  next  subject,  to  which,  at  all  events,  it  forms  a  suitable 
transition. 

The  second  section  of  the  Epistle  is  devoted  to  remonstrances 
against  various  sins  (v.,  i-vi.,  20). 

The  first  case  dealt  with  is  one  of  incest,  in  which  the  Apostle's 
moral  indignation  is  roused  to  the  highest  pitch  (v.,  1-8). 

Among  you  (v.,  l). — These  words  would,  I  think,  be 
more  properly  connected  with  "reported."  The  sin  was  a 
matter  of  common  talk  in  the  church,  and  not  something 
hidden  in  secret  which  might,  on  that  account,  have  been 
overlooked.  How  constantly  has  this  been  repeated  in  the 
history  of  the  Church.  The  foulest  sins  have  been  tolerated, 
while  men  have  been  puffed  up  with  their  orthodox\\ 

Hath  his  father's  wife  (v.,  l). — Of  course  the  man's 
step-mother  must  be  meant.  Many  commentators  think  that 
an  actual  marriage  is  intended  ;  but  this  must  be  left  doubt- 
ful. The  woman,  we  must  suppose,  was  not  a  Christian,  as 
her  case  is  not  considered.  If  we  judge  from  this  passage 
alone,  it  would  .seem  that  the  father  was  dead  ;  for  no  notice 
is  taken  of  the  wrong  inflicted  upon  him,  and  he,  if  living, 
would  probably  have  roused  the  church  to  some  action  in  the 
matter.  The  supposed  references  to  this  case  in  the  Second 
Epistle  must  be  considered  in  their  proper  place,  and  at 
present  I  will  only  express  my  agreement  with  those  who 


v.,  3-6.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  8i 

think  that  in  these  passages  some  other  interpretation  must 
be  sought. 

Present  in  spirit  (v.,  3). — This  illustrates  the  use  of  the 
word  "spirit,"  which  cannot  here  denote  the  actual  sub- 
stance of  the  mind  ;  for  that  could  be  no  more  present  than 
the  body.  The  words  must  mean,  present  in  thought  and 
purpose,  and  influencing  all  who  respected  his  authorit5\ 

To  deliver  such  a  07ie  unto  Satan  (v.,  5). — It  is  impos.si- 
ble  to  decide  with  certainty  what  is  meant  by  these  words. 
The  only  other  place  where  the  phrase  occurs  is  i  Tim.  i.,  20, 
where  the  object  is  that  those  so  delivered  ma}-  be  taught  not 
to  blaspheme.  One  would  suppose  that  Satan  would  rather 
teach  men  to  blaspheme,  and  take  away  their  hope  of  salva- 
tion. He  seems  to  be  regarded  in  these  passages  as  the 
spirit  of  adversit)',  according  to  the  representation  of  him  in 
the  Book  of  Job,  so  that  moral  good  might  result  from  a 
temporary  subjection  to  him.  Compare  2  Cor.  xii.,  7,  where 
Paul  calls  his  thorn  in  the  flesh  a  "messenger  of  Satan," 
and  this  was  given  to  him  in  order  to  keep  him  humble.  See 
also  I  Thess.  ii.,  18,  where,  instead  of  Satan,  we  should  prob- 
ablj'  say  in  modern  times  "adverse  circumstances  hindered 
us."  It  is  clear  that  in  the  present  passage  something  more 
is  intended  than  excommunication,  for  this  would  have  no 
tendency  to  destroy  the  flesh.  Though  we  cannot  reach  the 
exact  details,  we  .should  notice  the  great  solemnity  of  the 
judgment  here  passed,  and  contrast  the  deep  grief  and  indig- 
nation which  Paul  expresses  towards  immorality  with  the 
gentle  and  reasonable  wa}^  in  which  he  treats  mere  doctrinal 
error,  as  in  regard  to  the  resurrection.  We  .should  observe 
also  that  the  punitive  sentence  was  .to  be  the  impressive  act 
of  the  assembled  church,  not  of  a  particular  order,  and  that 
they  were  to  pronounce  it  luider  a  deep  sense  of  their  connec- 
tion with  Christ  and  the  requirements  of  that  "  name  "  which 
they  bore. 

A    little   leaven    (v.,  6). — This   may    refer   to    the    moral 

6 


82  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         v.,  y-vi.,  i. 

laxity,  which  allowed  the  Corinthiaus  to  glory,  and,  if  it 
went  on,  would  corrupt  their  moral  life.  If  it  refers  to  the 
sin  itself,  "  a  little  "  applies,  not  to  its  intrinsic  character,  but 
to  its  extent  relatively  to  the  number  of  believers. 

Our  Passover  (v.,  7). — This  is  the  only  place  where  Paul 
uses  this  comparison.  The  figure  which  runs  through  vv. 
6-8  may  have  been  suggested  b}^  the  approach  of  the  feast  of 
the  Passover,  which  was  observed  in  the  Christian  churches 
as  well  as  among  the  Jews. 

Paul  is  led  by  the  subject  to  correct  a  misunderstanding  of  a  pre- 
vious letter,  which  has  not  been  preserved  (v.,  9-13). 

He  had  directed  the  brethren  to  keep  no  company  with  im- 
moral men,  but  intended  this  to  be  a  regulation  within  the 
brotherhood  itself.  Neither  he  nor  they  could  judge  out- 
siders ;  but  they  should  not  even  eat  with  a  bad  man  as  a 
member  of  the  brotherhood.  We  must  once  more  observe 
that  it  is  for  purely  moral  offences  that  excommunication  is 
urged.  If  Paul  was  acquainted  with  the  parable  of  the  tares, 
he  cannot  have  understood  it  as  some  of  its  later  interpreters. 
It  is  astonishing  that  such  men  as  are  specified  were  found 
within  the  Christian  community  at  that  time  ;  but  many  may 
have  been  attracted  to  the  Church  through  bad  motives,  hop- 
ing to  prey  on  the  charity  of  the  brethren,  or  even  through  a 
superstitious  dread  of  the  approaching  judgment,  from  which 
they  fancied  the  Gospel  would  magically  save  them. 

Put  azvay  the  wicked  man  from  among  yourselves  (v.,  13). — 
The  words  are  so  close  to  those  of  Deut.  xxiv.,  7,  that  we 
must  take  them  as  a  quotation. 

A  very  different  subject  is  now  introduced,  suggested  perhaps  by 
the  reference  to  judging  in  the  last  two  verses  ;  and  the  disposition 
to  bring  charges  against  a  brother  before  heathen  courts  is  rebuked 
(vi.,  i-ii). 

Unrighteous  .  .  .  saints  (vi.,  l). — The  former  word 
describes  unbelievers,  unrighteousness  being,  from  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  point  of  view,  the  prevailing  characteristic  of 


vi.,  2,  3.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  83 

the  heathen  world.  The  word  may  retain  here  its  stricter 
sense  of  "unjust,"  so  that  it  marks  the  absurdity  of  the 
course  which  is  censured.  Similarly  "saints,"  though  a 
common  designation  of  Christians,  is  peculiarly  appropriate 
here,  for  those  who  are  holy  are  most  likely  to  give  a  true 
judgment.  The  Jews,  likewise,  were  forbidden  to  bring 
their  disputes  before  heathen  tribunals,' 

The  saints  shall  Judge  the  zvorld  (vi.,  2). — This  is  assumed 
as  a  well-known  fact,  and  was  most  likely  to  have  been 
learned  from  Daniel  vii.,  22,  "Judgment  was  given  to  the 
saints  of  the  Most  High."  Paul  expected  Christ  to  be  the 
judge  at  his  coming,  and  therefore  commentators  say  that 
the  saints  are  to  be  his  assessors  ;  but  the  passage  here  does 
not  call  them  assessors,  and  it  may  be  that  Paul  had  in  mind 
the  Messianic  period,  when  the  saints  would  continue  to  act 
as  judges.  It  is  also  possible  that  he  had  no  very  clearly 
defined  idea,  beyond  the  expectation  that  in  some  way  the 
saints  would  ultimately  judge  the  world,  instead  of  being 
judged  by  it. 

We  shall  judge  angels  (vi.,  3). — This  also  the  Corinthians 
were  expected  to  know.  In  rabbinical  teaching  the  right- 
eous occupied  a  dwelling  in  heaven  nearer  to  the  throne  of 
God  than  angels.''  Such  speculations  belong  to  the  know- 
ledge that  passes  away.  But  understood  in  the  spirit  the}^ 
have  a  grand  lesson.  Those  whose  judgment,  guided  by  the 
spirit  of  Christ,  may  rise  to  the  highest  things,  and  discern 
the  right  and  wrong  even  of  angels'  deeds,  are  adequate  to 
deal  justly  with  the  petty  affairs  of  life  ;  and  if  we  have  a  dif- 
ference with  a  brother,  we  should  rather  seek  for  their  deci- 
sion than  resort  to  the  arbitrament  of  law.  The  Christians, 
we  should  observe,  were  in  a  di^erent  position  from  the 
Jews.  The  latter  had  their  legally  recognised  courts  in  con- 
nection with  the  synagogues  ;  the  former  had  no  legal  juris- 

■  V\^e.h&r,Jiidisctie  Theologie,  1897,  p,  785^. 
*  See  V^Qh^TyJudische  Theologie,  p.  404. 


84  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  vi.,  4-11. 

diction,  and  among  themselves  could  only  submit  their 
disputes  to  a  friendly  arbitration. 

Who  are  of  710  account  in  the  church  (vi.,  4). — As  the  trans- 
lation stands,  this  must  mean  the  heathen.  The  difficulty  in 
this  interpretation  is  that  the  Christians  could  not  "  set"  or 
appoint  heathen  judges.  The  sentence  may,  however,  be 
translated  as  in  the  margin  ;  and  then  the  meaning  is,  if  we 
must  have  these  petty  tribunals,  appoint  those  who  are  of  no 
account  among  you,  and  do  not  waste  the  time  of  sensible 
men.  The  irony  is  then  explained  by  what  follows  :  "  I  say 
this  to  move  you  to  shame."  Notwithstanding  the  slight 
difficulty,  I  think  the  former  is  sustained  by  the  context. 

A  defect  (vi.,  7)- — The  translation  in  the  margin,  "  a  loss  to 
you,"  gives  a  better  sense.  Paul  had  alread)'  made  it  very 
plain  that  it  was  a  defect  to  have  lawsuits  ;  but  it  was  much 
worse,  for  it  involved  spiritual  loss,  causing  men  to  defraud 
in  their  eagerness  not  to  be  defrauded,  and  to  forget  that  all 
unrighteousness  excluded  from  the  Kingdom  of  God.  We 
thus  obtain  a  good  connection  of  thought  where  at  first  sight 
there  appears  to  be  a  very  abrupt  transition. 

Inherit  the  Kingdoju  of  God  (vi.,  9),  a  familiar  figure  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles.  In  this  phrase  the  Kingdom  is  regarded 
chiefly  in  its  future  outward  realisation.  But  its  more  in- 
ward and  spiritual  sense  is  not  forgotten  :  the  Kingdom  of 
God  and  unrighteousness  are  for  ever  incompatible.  The 
list  of  the  unrighteous  is  given  in  order  to  make  it  quite 
plain  what  is  meant.  Men  who  lead  bad  lives  cannot  get 
into  the  Kingdom  of  God  by  any  legal  fiction  ;  their  badness 
proves  that  they  are  not  of  it.  Observe  once  more  Paul's 
absolute  refusal  to  palter  in  any  way  with  evil  living.  If 
Christianity  had  not  brought  real  righteousness,  he  would 
have  spurned  it  as  a  loathesome  sham. 

Such  were  some  of  you  (vi.,  II). — This  form  of  expression 
implies  that  they  were  so  no  more,  and  that  the  change 
which  had  taken  place  in  them  was  moral.     But  though 


vi.,  II.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  85 

they  had  undergone  a  moral  change,  they  were  in  danger  of 
a  relapse,  and  needed  to  be  reminded  of  the  solemn  religious 
sanctions  under  which  the  change  had  taken  place. 

Ye  ivere  washed  (vi.,  II).— It  would  be  better  to  keep  the 
strict  sense,  "Ye  washed  yourselves,"  meaning,  "Ye  sub- 
mitted yourselves  to  baptism,"  for  that  was  a  voluntary  act. 
This  action  implied  the  acceptance  of  Christian  obligations, 
and  the  renouncement  of  the  old  heathen  life.     ' '  Sanctified 
and  "justified,"  on  the  other  hand,  are  Divine  acts  ;  for  man 
cannot  turn  his  own  impurity  into  holiness,  or  acquit  him- 
self in  the  court  of  supreme  judgment.     Some  are  distressed 
because  Paul  here  places  sanctification  before  justification  ; 
but  he  is  not  writing  a  natural  history  of  religious  change. 
No  doubt  forgiveness  long  precedes  complete  sanctification  ; 
and  yet  forgiveness  is  conditioned  by  penitence,  and  peni- 
tence implies  that  the  sanctifying  spirit  is  already  at  work. 
The  man  who  loathes  his  sin  is  sanctified  in  comparison 
with  the  man  who  loves  it,  and  I  know  not  where  it  is  said 
that  he  who  loves  sin  can  be  justified.     The  words,  "  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Spirit  of  our  God," 
solemnly  translate   us   to  the  sphere  of  absolute  holiness, 
where  passion  is  still,  and  worldly  desire  ceases  to  press. 

Paul  now  returns  to  the  subject  of  fornication,  about  which  there 
seems  to  have  been  some  misunderstanding  (vi.,  12-20). 

We  must  remember  that  this,  if  considered  a  fault  at  all, 
was  regarded  as  a  very  venial  one  in  Gentile  society.  For 
this  reason  it  is  specially  mentioned  in  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.,  29)  along  with  restrictions 
about  food.  Now  Paul  had  taught  that  meats  were  things 
morally  indifferent ;  on  what  ground,  then,  did  he  condemn 
fornication?  This  difficulty  is  answered  in  the  present 
passage.  It  was  quite  true  that  meats  were  morally  indifferent, 
so  long  at  least  as  we  did  not  allow  appetite  to  gain  the 
mastery  over  us.     They  were  so  because  they  were  related 


S6  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  vi.,  14-20. 

only  to  the  physical  organ  which  was  necessary  for  the 
present  life,  but  was  ultimately  to  perish.  In  other  words, 
the  use  of  one  convenient  food  rather  than  another  had 
no  moral  effect,  but  left  the  character  untouched.  The 
argument  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  used  by  Christ 
(Matt.,  XV.,  losqq.,  Mark  vii.,  14  .y^^.).  The  case  is  different 
with  fornication  ;  for  that,  though  in  itself  a  mere  physical 
act,  is  a  misappropriation  of  the  body,  and  desecrates  the 
temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  details  of  the  argument  are 
a  little  obscure.  Paul  distinguishes  the  body  from  the  flesh. 
The  former  was  the  permanent  organ  of  the  Spirit,  indis- 
.solubly  connected  with  our  personality,  and  therefore  destined 
to  be  raised  from  the  dead  ;  whereas  the  flesh  was  cor- 
ruptible, and  doomed  to  perish.  An  illicit  connection  could 
not  be  confined  to  the  latter,  but  handed  over  to  the  slave  of 
vice  that  higher  organism  which  was  meant  for  the  L,ord. 
The  general  lesson  is  clear  :  reverence  for  the  body  as  a 
Divine  organ  is  inconsistent  with  all  diversion  of  "it  from  its 
Divine  ends. 

God  both  raised  the  Lord,  ayid  will  raise  up  us  (vi.,  14). — 
Observe  how  Christ  is  placed  with  man  as  dependent  on 
God  for  his  risen  life. 

Ye  were  bought  ivith  a  price  (vi.,  20). — Explaining  this  by 
other  passages,  we  cannot  doubt  that  the  reference  is  to  the 
agonising  death  of  Christ.  By  a  perfectly  natural  and  easy 
figure  Paul  represents  this  as  the  price  which  God  paid  in 
order  to  buy  man  for  Himself  To  press  the  details  of  the 
figure,  and  ask  to  whom  God  paid  the  price,  is  to  mistake 
the  nature  of  figurative  language.  If  we  made  the  general 
statement  that  the  sinful  were  brought  to  God  at  the  cost  of 
suffering  to  the  innocent,  everyone  who  was  not  a  theologian 
would  understand  the  saying. 

We  pass  now  to  another  section  of  the  Epistle,  containing 
Paul's  answers  to  various  questions  about  marriage  which  had  been 
laid  before  him  in  a  letter  from  the  Corinthians  (vii.). 


vii.,  1-7.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  87 

In  these  answers  he  expresses  himself  with  great  care,  and 
frankly  says  that  in  certain  points  he  is  only  giving  his  own 
judgment,  and  not  laying  down  absolute  rules  of  Christian 
morality.  In  judging  of  his  views  we  must  in  fairness  re- 
member that  the  treatment  is  conditioned  by  the  questions 
which  are  not  before  us,  but  which  clearly  related,  not  to 
marriage  generally,  but  to  certain  definite  points  connected 
with  it.  Nevertheless  it  would  have  been  quite  in  accordance 
with  Paul's  style  to  have  laid  down  the  great  spiritual 
principles  affecting  marriage,  and  to  have  deduced  his  rules 
from  these.  But  he  was  not  a  married  man,  and  evidently 
had  no  inclination  in  that  direction  ;  and  so  he  lays  down 
prudential  rules,  and  disappoints  those  who  look  for  the 
spiritual  depth  which  he  displays  on  other  subjects. 

He  begins  with  some  suggestions,  given  not  by  way  of  command- 
ment, but  of  concession,  about  the  advisability  of  marriage  and  its 
subsequent  duties  (vii.,  1-7). 

We  may  suppose  that  the  prevailing  licentiousness  at 
Corinth  had  given  rise,  through  reaction,  to  an  ascetic  view. 
Paul  expresses  his  own  preference  for  a  state  of  celibacy,  or 
of  abstinence  in  the  case  of  marriage,  as  that  which  in  itself 
was  good.  But  he  was  a  man  of  the  world  as  well  as  a 
Christian  saint,  and  saw  the  terrible  evils  which  were  sure  to 
arise  from  any  unnatural  and  enforced  restraint.  He  there- 
fore dissuades  from  celibacy  or  its  equivalent  unless  a  man's 
special  gift  of  grace  leads  him  to  adopt  it.  We  should 
observe  that  v.  2  assumes  that  monogamy  is  the  established 
and  the  proper  usage. 

The  next  paragraph  contains  various  directions  about  unmarried 
and  married  Christians  (for  their  b^ing  such  is  implied),  about 
mixed  marriages,  and,  as  arising  out  of  the  latter  subject,  about 
the  propriety  of  not  changing  one's  social  condition  owing  to  the 
acceptance  of  Christianity  (vii.,  8-24). 

On  the  subject  of  divorce  he  appeals  to  the  express  com- 
mand of  Christ.     In  regard  to  mixed  marriages  the  Lord 


88  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         vii.,  14-16. 

had  left  no  instructions,  such  cases  not  having  arisen,  and 
Paul  accordingly  gives  his  own  advice.  He  clearly  recog- 
nises the  right  of  separation  in  these  instances,  but  thinks 
that  it  should  not  be  exercised  on  the  Christian  side,  though 
it  should  be  accepted  as  a  dissolution  of  marriage  if  the 
heathen  husband  or  wife  thought  fit  to  sever  the  engagement. 
It  is  plainly  assumed  that  the  marriages  in  question  were 
contracted  prior  to  the  conversion  of  the  husband  or  wife  to 
Christianity. 

Sanctified  (vii.,  14). — This  might  be  better  rendered  "  con- 
secrated," as  it  is  in  the  margin  in  John  xvii.,  19.  The  union 
was  holy,  and  in  effect  Christian. 

Now  are  they  [the  children]  holy  (vii.,  14)  ;  that  is,  counted 
as  belonging  to  the  community  of  the  holy.  See  the  note  on 
Rom.  i.,  7.  The  statement  indicates  that  this  was  an  ac- 
cepted practice.  Paul  says  nothing  about  baptism,  and  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  infant  baptism  had  been  yet 
established,  His  views  on  baptism  seem  applicable  only  to 
converts,  and  he  assumes  that  the  children  of  a  Christian 
parent  belong  ipso  facto  to  the  society  of  ' '  the  saints. ' '  This 
reverses  the  Roman  practice,  according  to  which,  under  the 
Latin  franchise,  the  inferior  blood  prevailed,  and  "  the  child 
of  a  mixed  marriage  became  a  Latin,  and  not  a  Roman  citi- 
zen." '  But,  among  the  Jews,  if  a  Jewess  were  married  to  a 
Gentile,  the  nationality  of  the  child  was  supposed  to  follow 
that  of  the  mother.^ 

How  knowest  thou,  O  wife,  whether  thou  shalt  save  thy  hus- 
band (vii.,  16). — This  may  refer  to  vv.  12-14,  ^^^^  interven- 
ing verse  being  parenthetical  ;  and  then  the  meaning  is,  do 
not  put  away  the  unbelieving  husband,  for  you  may  convert 
him.  Or  it  may  refer  to  v.  15  ;  do  not  prevent  a  separation, 
for  you  cannot  be  sure  that  you  will  convert  him.     You  are 

'  Merivale,  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,  ed.  1890,  i., 
p.  8. 
*  Weber,  yudische  Theologie,  1897,  p.  72. 


vii.,  17-19.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  89 

not  bound  ;  j-our  calling  has  been  in  peace,  and  3^ou  need  not 
be  distressed  with  anxious  scruples.  Tlie  latter  connection 
seems  preferable. 

The  connection  of  the  following  passage  is  not  immedi- 
ately apparent.  Verse  17  checks  the  statement  of  15,  and 
repeats  in  another  form  the  advace  of  12-14  •  the  Christian 
husband  or  wife  is  not  bound  in  the  case  of  mixed  mar- 
riages ;  but  it  is  better  to  remain  in  the  social  circumstances 
which  we  occupied  when  we  received  the  Christian  call,  for 
the  value  of  the  latter  is  not  affected  by  the  former.  This 
was  the  instruction  which  Paul  gave  everywhere  ;  and  it  is 
illustrated  by  the  case  of  circumcision  and  uncircumcision, 
and  that  of  slavery  and  freedom. 

As  the  Lord  hath  distributed  to  each  man  (vii.,  17). — "The 
lyord  "  niust,  in  accordance  with  Paul's  usage,  mean  Christ. 
But  then  I  doubt  whether  "  distributed  "  can  refer  to  men's 
worldly  position,  for  nowhere  else  is  it  suggested  "that  Christ 
assigns  their  lot  in  life  to  men  unconnected  with  Christianity  ; 
and  yet  this  is  what  the  sequel  seems  to  imph'.  But  we  may 
perhaps  obtain  a  good  connection  of  thought  by  referring  it 
to  spiritual  gifts  (compare  Rom.  xii.,  3,  and  2  Cor.  x.,  13, 
the  only  other  passages  where  Paul  uses  the  word  in  this 
sense).  Then  the  meaning  will  be, — direct  your  lives  in 
accordance  with  your  special  gifts  and  your  Christian  call- 
ing ;  and  then  you  need  not  trouble  3'ourselves  about  outward 
conditions  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  character ;  keep 
the  commandments  of  God,  and  let  outward  things  settle 
themselves. 

Keeping  the  commandments  (vii.,  19). — This  shows  how 
naturally  Paul  assumes  that  the  commandments  of  God  are 
moral,  and  that  he  had  not  departed  as  widely  from  the 
teaching  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. Circumcision  was  of  course  prescribed  by  the  Law, 
but  Paul  here  quietly  treats  it  as  lying  outside  the  command- 
ments of  God. 


90  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  vii.,  20-23. 

Calling  (vii.,  20)  must  signify  the  Divine  call,  not  a  "  call- 
ing "  in  the  world,  in  our  sense  of  the  word.  The  latter 
idea  comes  in  only  by  implication  :  men  were  called,  not  to 
an  outward,  but  to  an  inward  change  ;  let  them  cling  to  the 
latter  and  not  care  for  the  former. 

Use  it  rather  (vii.,  2l). — I  think  the  translation  of  the  pre- 
vious clause,  ' '  Nay,  even  if, ' '  is  the  more  correct ;  so  that 
the  meaning  must  be,  prefer  to  remain  in  slavery. 

Ye  'we7'e  bought  with  a  price  (vii.,  23). — See  vi.,  20. 

Become  not  bond- servants  of  men  (vii.,  23). — Ye  are  Christ's 
slaves,  therefore  do  not  submit  yourselves  spiritually  to  any 
lower  mastership,  or  enslave  5-ourselves  to  mere  human 
judgments. 

In  judging  of  the  principle  here  applied  to  questions  so 
entirely  different  (from  our  point  of  view)  as  those  of  circum- 
cision and  slavery  we  must  remember  that  to  Paul  the  time 
was  short,  and  it  did  not  seem  worth  while  wasting  on 
earthly  concerns  the  energies  which  were  needed  for  higher 
purposes.  Moreover,  he  was  so  absorbed  in  the  direct  action 
of  spiritual  power  that  it  probably  never  occurred  to  him  to 
consider  the  different  effects  which  varying  social  conditions 
might  exercise  upon  character  ;  and  even  if  it  be  one-sided, 
there  is  something  unspeakabl}^  grand  in  that  outlook  into 
things  infinite  and  eternal  which  dwarfed  all  the  cares  of  the 
world  and  of  time,  and  made  it  a  matter  of  complete  indif- 
ference whether  one  was  bond  or  free.  This  limitation  of 
view  was  perhaps  necessary  for  the  triumph  of  Christianity. 
Had  the  churches  become  organs  of  social  revolution,  and 
threatened  "  the  rights  of  property,"  they  would  not  only 
have  damaged  the  purity  of  their  own  spiritual  impulse,  but 
would  have  been  suppressed  with  ruthless  ferocity.  The 
Gospel  had  principles  which  were  destined  to  work  grand 
social  changes  ;  but  remote  results  of  principle  are  not  at 
once  perceived,  and  before  the  institutions  of  the  world 
could  be  attacked  with  advantage,  the  world  itself  had  to  be 


vii.,  25-40.         FIRST  CORINTHIANS  91 

raised  to  a  higher  spiritual  level.  This  was  the  first  task 
which  Christianity  had  to  undertake  ;  and  for  its  accom- 
plishment Paul  was  fitted  as  well  by  his  limitations  as  by 
that  transcendent  spiritual  vision  to  which  his  limitations 
were  partly  due. 

Paul  now  turns  to  questions  connected  with  the  marriage  of  vir- 
gins, which  had  doubtless  been  laid  before  him  in  the  Corinthian 
letter  (vii.,  25-40). 

The  general  sense  of  the  reply  is  sufficiently  clear ;  but 
there  are  a  few  points  of  which  we  should  take  special  note. 
Paul,  having  no  commandment  on  the  subject,  gives  his  own 
opinion.  This  he  has  formed  reverently  and  faithfully,  with 
a  sole  view  to  the  good  of  his  readers,  and  he  believes  it  to 
be  in  accordance  with  the  Spirit  of  God.  Thus  humble  and 
gentle  is  an  Apostle,  when  dealing  with  difficult  questions, 
of  which  different  views  might  be  taken.  His  general  prin- 
ciple is  that  change  of  condition  is  undesirable  owing  to  the 
distress  whicli  was  alread^^  heralding  the  close  of  the  present 
order  of  the  world  :  the  time  was  so  short  that  all  ordinar}' 
interests  sank  into  insignificance,  and  it  was  better  that  men 
should  be  free  from  care.  But  he  who  felt  unable  or  unwill- 
ing to  act  on  this  principle  did  not  sin.  He  treats  the  mar- 
riage of  a  virgin  daughter  as  entirely  at  the  discretion  of  her 
father.  Finally,  he  concedes,  in  opposition  to  his  own  per- 
.sonal  preference,  that  a  widow  is  quite  free  to  marry  whom 
she  will,  provided  only  it  be  within  the  Christian  fold. 

The  fourth  section  of  the  Epistle  deals  with  another  question 
which  had  arisen  at  Corinth  :  What  was  the  proper  line  of  conduct 
to  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  prevailing  idolatry?  (viii., 
i-xi.,  I). 

A  Christian  was  bound,  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  abstain 
from  the  worship  of  idols  ;  but  was  he  to  go  farther  and 
carefully  avoid  the  use  of  sacrificial  meat — that  is,  the  portion 
of  the  sacrifice  which  was  left  over  for  a  feast  in  a  temple  or 


92  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  viii.,  1-5. 

at  home,  or  even  for  sale  in  the  market  ?  Meat  could  not  be 
really  defiled  by  being  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  scrupulositj' 
might  deprive  a  Christian  of  much  innocent  enjoyment,  be- 
sides making  him  appear  needlessly  hostile  to  the  amenities 
of  social  life.     This  subject  is  now  discussed. 

Paul  first  lays  down  the  true  principle  of  action  (viii.,  1-13). 

In  the  light  of  abstract  truth  the  Christian  need  have  no 
scruple  ;  but  some,  through  long  association  with  idolatry, 
were  unable  to  shake  off  their  scruples,  and  so  by  eating 
wounded  their  consciences.  Hence  the  principle  of  love 
came  in  ;  and  it  was  better  to  abstain  than  to  tempt  a  man 
to  do  what  he,  though  erroneously,  considered  to  be  wrong. 
By  so  tempting  him  you  inflict  moral  ruin  upon  him,  and  in 
thus  violating  love  you  yourself  sin  against  Christ. 

We  knozv  that  we  all  have  knowledge  (viii.,  l),  said  with  a 
slight  touch  of  iron}',  perhaps  quoting  the  Corinthians' 
letter  ;  for  in  v.  7  the  proposition  is  expressly  denied. 

The  same  is  known  of  him  (viii.,  3). — Compare  Gal.  iv.,  9, 
and  Matt,  vii.,  23.  It  is  a  higher  thing  to  be  recognised  by 
God  as  His  than  to  have  that  loveless  knowledge  which  only 
ministers  to  our  self-conceit.  It  is  implied  that  this  love 
contains  within  it  the  true  principle  of  practical  judgment. 

No  idol  (viii.,  4). — Idol  must  be  used  technically,  to  denote 
an  image  which  actually  represented  and  enshrined  a  god. 
This  is  shown  by  the  antithesis,  "  There  is  no  God  but  one." 

Called  gods,  whether  in  heaven  or  on  earth  (viii.,  5),  refer- 
ring to  the  higher  Olympian  deities,  and  the  inferior  gods  of 
grove  and  stream  and  home.  Their  reality  seems  to  be 
asserted,  and  only  their  godhead  denied.  In  x.,  20,  they 
are  treated  as  demons.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the 
word  "god,"  in  a  good  sense,  has  a  more  extended  mean- 
ing, as  it  has  in  John  x.,  34,  35.' 

'According  to  Origen,  the  Father  alone  is  ai3ra'(/£o5,  and  conse- 
quently Ttay  Se  to  Jtirpd  to  avroOeui  /.lerox^  ^fji  kxEivov  Qe6r}/T0i 


viii.,  5-6.  FIRS 7^  CORINTHIANS  93 

Lords  many  (viii.,  5). — Clement  of  Alexandria  quotes  from 
an  apocryphal  book  of  Zephaniah,  "  The  spirit  took  me  up, 
and  brought  me  to  the  fifth  heaven,  and  I  saw  angels  called 
lords."  ' 

To  7is  there  ts  one  God,  the  Father  {ym.^  6). — This  verse,  at 
first  sight,  seems  to  contain  as  plain  a  statement  as  it  is 
possible  for  language  to  convey  that  the  Father  alone  is  God, 
and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  not  God.  But  as  such  a  statement 
must  be  got  rid  of  at  all  costs,  it  is  said  that,  as  the  Father 
may  be  I^ord,  so  Jesus  Christ  may  be  God,  This  is  highly 
ingenious  ;  but  unless  the  terms  here  are  mutually  exclusive, 
the  passage  becomes  quite  incoherent,  as  is  evident  if  we 
change  "Lord"  into  "God."  "Lord"  is  a  general  term, 
and  is  applied  to  the  owner  of  slaves,  as  in  Eph.  vi.,  5,  9,  or 
to  the  heir  of  a  property,  as  in  Gal.  iv.,  i  ;  but  Paul  obvi- 
ously employs  the  word  here  in  a  sense  not  applicable  to 
these  ;  and  so,  though  the  word  may  be  applied  to  God,  the 
terms  here  are  not  convertible.  The  fact  is,  if  we  omit  the 
Pastoral  Epistles,  there  is  no  certain  instance  in  which 
the  term  "  Lord"  is  applied  to  God  in  the  Pauline  letters 
except  in  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  and  passages 
immediately  governed  by  these  quotations.  Out  of  238  in- 
stances in  which  the  word  may  refer  to  Christ  as  many  as 
173  admit  of  no  doubt,  and  a  great  raajorit}-  of  the  remainder 
admit  of  hardh^  any  doubt  ;  so  that  it  is  abundantlj'  proved 
to  be  Paul's  distinctive  title  for  Jesus  Christ.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  term  "  God  "  is  used  541  times  (of  which  366  are 
in  the  great  Epistles),"  and  unless  Rom.  ix.,  5,  be  an  excep- 

^Eoitoiovt-iEvoi'  ovx  o  Osoi  (xAXd  Qeo'i'.  And  again,  oi  de  nax 
tHEivov  /.iopq)ovi.tEvoi  BeoI,  ca?  eiHorei  TrpoorurvTiov.  Com.  in  Joati., 
torn,  ii.,  2,  pp.  92  sq.  (Lorn.). 

'  Strovi.,  v.,  II,  p.  692  (Potter).  I  owe  the  reference  to  Rev.  R.  H. 
Charles,  T/ie  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enocli,  p.  xliii. 

■^  The  precise  numbers  may  be  a  little  UMcerlain,  owing  to  differ- 
ences of  reading  in  certain  passages. 


94  f'ff^'^  '/■  <  '(>f<f^^  Tiff  A  NS  viii. ,  6. 

tioii,  it  is  never  applied  to  Christ.  These  facts  surely  speak 
for  themselves.  We  must  also  observe  that  in  this  derlara- 
tion  of  Christian  doctrine  there  is  no  mention  of  the  Ilfjly 
Spirit. 

All  lliin^s  (viii.,  6). —  I'Voni  one  point  of  view  it  mij^ht  seem 
simplest  to  iniderstanrl  these  words  as  meaninj^  "the  uni- 
verse" ;  and  then  it  W(juld  follow  that  Paul  believed  th.-it 
Jesus  Christ  was  the  agent  through  whom  the  universe  was 
created.  I  am  anxious  not  to  explain  away  anything  that 
the  Apostle  says  ;  but  I  cannot  help  doubting  whether  this 
is  what  he  meant.  The  extent  of  "  all  things  "  is  frequently 
limited  by  the  connection.  I-'f^r  instance,  when  it  is  .said 
th;i1  C,iA  will  freely  give  us  "all  things"  (Rom.  viii.,  32), 
we  must  understand  all  things  needful  to  complete  our 
.salvatifjii.  In  tiie  present  Jvpistle,  when  it  is  written  tli.-it 
"all  things  are  lawftd  "  (vi.,  12,  x.  23),  all  things  nuHally 
indifferent  nnist  be  intended  ;  and  when  Paul  says  he  became 
:dl  tilings  to  ,'dl  men  (ix.,  22),  lie  does  nf>t  me;ui  that  he 
ever  became  a  drunkarrl  or  a  liar.  So  when  he  .says  "all 
things  are  of  fiod  "  (2  Cor.  v.,  iH),  although  the  propf)sition 
would  be  tiM'-  in  its  universal  sense,  \  think  he  refers  01  dy 
to  the  things  u{  which  lie  has  been  speaking.  I''or  (jther 
examples  the  reader  nuiy  turn  to  i  Cor.  xii.,  6  ;  2  Cor.  iv., 
15  ;  i\:\\.  iv.,  I  ;  I'hilip.  iv.,  13,  i.S;  Col.  iii.,  -S  (where  the 
translators  have  inserted  "these");  i  John  ii.,  20.  There 
are  two  rea.scjus  for  limiting  the  phrase  in  the  ])rc.sent  pas.s- 
age.  First,  the  repetition  of  "us"  .-uid  "we"  seems  to 
ref|uire  something  S|)ecially  relating  to  us,  rind  leafling 
ii,'itiii;illy  to  the  per.sonal  reference.  Now  tlie  tlion^dit  is 
concerned  with  the  objects  of  religious  veneration,  so  tli.it  it 
is  (|iiite  in  j)lace  to  say,-  ns  for  us  Christi.'ins,  .-ill  0111  re 
ligioiis  blessings  flow  forth  froin  the  is-itlier  .-done,  ;iiid  in 
turn  we  arc  gathered  into  Ilim  as  the  .sole  object  ol  our 
worship  ;  and  all  tlu-se  blessings  have  come  to  us  through 
Jesus   Christ,    throujdi    wiiom   also  we   have    been   brought 


viii.,  10,  II.        FIRST  CORINTHIANS  95 

home  to  God.  This  gives  a  coherent  sense  which  is  quite 
agreeable  to  the  context.  Secondl}',  Paul  does  not  say  "  the 
Son  of  God"  or  "  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity,"  but 
"Jesus  Christ,"  and,  whatever  ma}' be  our  doctrine,  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  historic  person  who  taught  in  Palestine.  The 
second  person  of  the  Trinity  was  not  Jesus  Christ  prior  to 
the  incarnation,  and,  though  the  term  is  sometimes  loosely 
carried  back,  as  if  the  incarnation  had  taken  place  from 
eternity,  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  Paul  would  have  com- 
mitted such  an  error  of  statement.  The  explanation  which 
we  have  suggested  suits  the  historic  person,  and  relieves  us 
at  the  same  time  from  the  bathos  of  saying  that  "we  "  are 
through  him,  after  saying  that  the  universe  is  through  him. 

Be  emboldened  to  eat  (viii.,  lO)  ;  literally,  "  be  edified  unto 
eating."  The  word  is  the  same  as  in  v.  i,  and  has  an  ex- 
quisite irony  :  that  is  your  way  of  edifying,  lifting  a  man 
into  a  region  of  knowledge  whither  his  conscience  will  not 
suffer  him  to  go. 

The  brother  for  whose  sake  Christ  died  (viii. ,  1 1 ). — Compare 
Rom.  xiv.,  15.  The  man  whom  you  thus  ruin  is  a  brother; 
yet  you  will  not  forego  a  pleasant  dinner  for  his  sake,  though 
Christ  died  for  him.  Christ's  death  presents  the  standard 
of  Christian  love,  so  that  in  sinning  against  the  brethren  we 
sin  against  him. 

Paul  now  turns  aside  from  the  main  subject  in  order  to  enforce 
his  advice  by  appealing  to  his  own  example  (ix.,  1-27). 

The  connection  of  thought  is  not  very  obvious,  and  in  the 
usual  interpretation  it  is  so  entirely-  wanting  as  to  give  the 
impression  that  the  passage  must  ha\ie  been  misplaced.  The 
subject  of  idolatry  is  resumed  at  x.,  14  ;  and  if  our  text  has 
been  correctly  preserved,  the  Apostle  must  have  had  this  in 
his  mind  all  through,  although  some  other  topics,  appro- 
priatel}'  introduced,  may  l)e  worked  out  a  little  more  fully 
than  their  immediate  bearing  demands.     The  key   to  the 


96  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ix.,  1-5. 

connection  must  be  found  in  the  explanation  of  the  words 
"  them  that  examine  me"  {v.  3).  It  is  generally  assumed 
that  this  refers  to  Judaisers,  who  disputed  Paul's  right  to 
call  himself  an  Apostle,  and  thus  the  whole  passage  becomes 
utterly  irrelevant.  If  we  had  the  Corinthians'  letter  before 
us,  we  should  doubtless  see  that  the  "  examination  "  had 
nothing  to  do  with  Judaisers,  but  related  to  the  subject  in 
hand.  I  suppose  that  Paul  had  already  given  general 
instructions  about  idolatrous  feasts,  but  that  some  at  Corinth 
were  not  satisfied,  and  pointed  out  that  to  them  the  idol  was 
nothing,  so  that  they  could  join  in  the  feasts  without  offence  ; 
and  they  may  have  put  it  to  him  that  he  was  imposing  on 
others  a  burden  that  did  not  affect  himself.  He,  as  a  Jew, 
had  no  temptation  in  regard  to  idolatry  ;  but  they  were  sur- 
rounded by  unbelieving  relatives  and  friends,  and  did  not 
feel  called  upon  to  forego  what  to  them  was  innocent  social 
enjoyment  because  some  of  the  brethren  were  stupid  and 
took  offence.  Paul's  reply  is,  in  effect, — Well,  am  I  not  free 
from  the  control  of  others  ?  Have  I  not  the  full  rights  of  an 
Apostle,  as  much  as  Peter  himself?  But  I  do  not  avail 
mj'self  of  these  rights  ;  I  practise  the  severest  self-denial, 
and  make  every  concession  I  can  to  others,  that  I  may  win 
them  to  the  Gospel.  Accordingly,  though  your  particular 
temptations  do  not  affect  me,  I  am  only  applying  to  you  the 
same  rule  as  I  habitually  apply  to  myself. 

Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  ?  (ix.,  l)  ;  referring  to  the  vision  at  his 
conversion,  when  he  was  called  to  be  an  Apostle.  The 
"  seeing  "  is  evidently  regarded  by  Paul  as  objective,  and  as 
something  quite  different  from  a  mere  internal  vision.  It  is 
clear  that  nothing  in  his  experience  seemed  to  him  more 
certain. 

The  seal  of  my  Apostleship  (ix.,  2). — The  seal  is  the  final 
authentication.  The  vision  was  the  source  of  Paul's  faith  ; 
the  results  of  his  work  were  the  proof  to  others. 

The  brethren  of  the  Lord  (ix.,  5). — On  this  subject  a  long 


ix.,  6-16.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  97 

dissertation  might  be  written.  Here  I  can  only  express  my 
own  conclusion  that  the  "brothers  "  were  the  real  brothers 
of  Jesus,  that  they  were  not  included  among  the  twelve 
Apostles,  and  that  they  did  not  become  believers  till  after 
the  resurrection.  They  must  b}-  this  time  have  been  known 
as  workers  in  the  Church. 

Barnabas  (ix.,  6). — We  are  not  told  that  he  had  any  con- 
nection with  Corinth.  Still  it  is  assumed  that  his  name  will 
be  known,  and  we  thus  gain  a  hint  that  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  were  spoken  about  among  the  brethren.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  Paul  and  Barnabas,  on  the  first  mission, 
may  have  agreed  together  that  they  would  work  for  their 
living. 

After  the  manner  of  men  (ix.,  8)  ;  that  is,  this  is  not  a  mere 
matter  of  human  opinion,  but  is  supported  by  the  authority 
of  the  Law. 

Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  (ix.,  9). — This  is  quoted  from 
Deut.  XXV.,  4.  The  allegorical  interpretation  which  Paul 
gives  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  exegetical  rules  of  the 
time  ;  but  from  our  modern  point  of  view  it  is  impossible  to 
believe  that  this  is  what  the  legislator  really  meant.  The 
principle  of  the  commandment,  however,  is  retained  in  the 
application. 

So  did  the  Lord  ordain  (ix.,  14)  ;  another  reference  to  an 
express  commandment  of  Christ's,  which  has  been  preserved 
in  Matt,  x.,  10,  Luke  x.,  7. 

/  write  not  these  things  that  it  may  be  so  done  i}i  my  case 
(ix.  15)  :  a  natural  digression  from  the  main  point,  to  guard 
against  all  misunderstanding. 

/  have  nothifig  to  glory  of  {i:^.,  16).— His  self-denial  could 
be  shown  only  in  relinquishing  his  just  rights  ;  for  in  simply 
preaching  the  Gospel  he  was  not  a  free  agent.  If  he  was 
doing  so  of  his  own  will,  it  must  be  for  a  reward,  and  woe 
to  him  if  he  missed  it  ;  if  not  of  his  own  will,  he  was  ful- 
filling a  trust,  and  woe  to  him  if  he  proved  unfaithful.     No 


98  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ix.,  19-24. 

doubt  he  regarded  the  latter  member  of  the  alternative  as 
the  real  state  of  the  case.  The  only  reward,  then,  which  he 
could  claim  was  the  privilege  of  having  none,  and  of  re- 
nouncing his  apostolic  privileges  for  the  sake  of  the  Gospel. 

Though  I  was  free  from  all  men,  I  brought  myself  tinder 
bo7idage  to  all  (ix.,  19).— He  was  "  free  "  (as  in  v.  i)  so  far 
as  human  claims  were  concerned  ;  his  adaptation  of  himself 
to  others  was  quite  voluntary.  The  whole  question  relates 
to  things  morally  indifferent ;  where  principle  was  involved 
we  know  that  Paul  could  stand  alone. 

The  law  (ix.,  20).— There  is  no  article  in  the  Greek, 
which  implies  that,  though  the  Law  of  Moses  is  intended,  it 
is  regarded,  not  simply  as  an  existing  institution,  but  in  its 
quality  of  law.  This  may  be  added  to  the  reference  to  the 
"Jews"  because  it  includes  proselytes,  and  excludes  Paul. 

Under  law  to  Christ  (ix.,  2l). — Release  from  the  law 
was  not  the  abrogation  of  law  ;  rather  was  it  the  realisation 
of  law  in  its  highest  sense. 

The  weak  (ix.,  22),  carrying  back  our  thoughts  to  viii., 
II  ;  I  never  use  my  stronger  convictions  so  as  to  injure  a 
weak  brother. 

Know  ye  7iot  (ix.,  24).— He  now  appeals  to  his  readers 
by  reminding  them  of  their  own  Isthmian  games.  For  the 
sake  of  winning  the  prize  men  would  undergo  months  of 
severe  training,  involving,  among  other  things,  restrictions 
in  diet.  How  much  easier  it  was,  for  the  sake  of  an  unfading 
wreath,  to  refrain  from  the  indulgence  of  sacrificial  feasts. 
If  Paul  was  not  personally  concerned  with  this  immediate 
question,  nevertheless  he  kept  his  body  in  subjection.  In 
running  he  kept  the  goal  clearly  in  view ;  in  boxing  he  did 
not  strike  the  air.  He  lived  as  one  who  knew  that  he  might 
fail  of  a  great  prize,  always  on  the  alert,  always  repressing 
those  desires  that  might  interfere  with  his  purpose.  That 
was  the  spirit  which  he  wished  to  see  in  his  readers  ;  and 
that  would  guide  them  right  in  dealing  with  weak  brethren. 


X.,  1-5.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  99 

Examples  are  here  introduced  from  the  Old  Testament,  to  show 
how  men  who  had  received  a  spiritual  baptism  and  spiritual  food 
might  nevertheless  fall  (x.,  1-13). 

The  argument  is  thus  carried  a  step  farther,  and  the  Corin- 
thians are  virtually  advised  to  abstain  from  idolatrous  feasts, 
not  only  on  account  of  weak  brethren,  but  for  their  own  sake. 

Our  fathers  (x.,  l). — Paul  probably  uses  this  expression 
here  from  his  own  point  of  view,  and  not  with  the  thought 
(found  elsewhere)  of  including  his  readers  in  the  spiritual 
Israel. 

Unto  Moses  (x.,  2)  ;  properly,  "into  Moses,"  as  in  Gal. 
iii.,  27,  "  baptised  into  Christ."  This  proves  that  Paul  did 
not  suppose  that  baptism  into  a  person  involved  belief  in  that 
person's  deity.  The  baptism  is  necessarily  figurative.  The 
whole  passage  is  an  example  of  allegorical  interpretation. 

The  same  spiritual  meat,  .  .  .  the  same  spiritual 
drink  (x.,  3,  4). — The  meat  and  drink  are  called  spiritual 
on  account  of  their  supernatural  character,  and  to  establish 
an  analogy  with  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
which  are  brought  into  the  argument  in  the  next  paragraph. 

77^1?  rock  was  Christ  (x.,  4). — In  the  mention  of  a  rock 
following  the  Israelites  there  may  be  a  reference  to  a  rab- 
binical tradition.  The  statement  that  this  rock  was  Christ 
seems  to  me  obviously  figurative  or  allegorical ;  for  of  course 
a  rock  was  not  really  Christ.  But  it  is  said  that  in  this  case 
the  words  would  be  "  the  rock  is  Christ."  The  past  tense, 
however,  is  required  by  the  context,  which  throughout 
throws  the  allegorical  interpretation  into  the  form  of  history. 
The  cloud  and  the  sea  represented  the  waters  of  baptism  ; 
the  manna  and  the  water  from  the  rock  represented  spiritual 
nourishment ;  and  so  the  rock  itself  represented  Christ.  It 
would  be  very  unsafe  to  assert  that  Paul  here  teaches  the 
intervention  of  Christ  in  ancient  history, — an  idea  which 
occurs  nowhere  else  in  his  writings. 

With  most  of  them  (x.,  5). — To  see  the  full  force  of  this 


loo  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  x.,  6-16. 

statement  we  must  notice  the  emphatically  repeated  "all" 
in  the  previous  verses:  they  "all"  had  every  spiritual  ad- 
vantage, and  nevertheless  most  of  them  fell  into  sin,  and 
were  justly  overthrown.  The  conclusion  follows  in  v.  12: 
those  who  think  they  stand  may  fall. 

Should  not  lust  after  evil  things  (x.,  6). — This  and  the  fol- 
lowing warnings  refer  to  the  reluctance  of  some  of  the 
Christians  to  renounce  the  pleasures  connected  with  idolatry. 

Rose  up  to  play  (x.,  7). — The  passage  is  from  Ex.  xxxii.,  6, 
and  refers  to  a  feast  and  dance  in  honour  of  the  golden  calf. 

Three  and  twefity  thousand  (x.,  8). — The  real  number  was 
twenty-four  thousand  (Num.  xxv.,  9).  The  change  is 
probably  due  to  faulty  recollection. 

The  Lord  (x.,  9) ;  here  probably  God,  on  account  of  the 
connection  with  the  Old  Testament. 

Temptation  (x.,  13),  referring  to  the  temptation  to  join  in 
idolatrous  practices.  That  was  not  more  than  a  man  ought 
to  be  able  to  resist.  Such  trials  of  our  firmness  came  from 
God  ;  and  He  knows  what  amount  of  trial  is  good  for  us,  and 
always  leaves  open  to  us  the  way  to  victory. 

From  the  foregoing  Paul  deduces  the  urgent  advice  to  avoid  idol- 
atry, and  then  strengthens  his  position  by  showing  the  complete 
incompatibility  between  the  special  Christian  festival  and  idolatrous 
feasts  (x.,  14-22). 

Food  and  drink  are  nothing  in  themselves,  but  both  in 
true  and  in  false  religions  a  religious  significance  is  attached 
to  them,  and  wherever  this  is  the  case  we  cannot  treat  them 
as  indifferent.  The  passage  has  some  difficult  points  ;  but 
the  general  sense  is  clear.  We  may  reserve  for  the  next 
chapter  the  question  of  the  nature  of  the  I^ord's  Supper. 

The  cup  of  blessing  (x.,  16)  ;  that  is,  the  cup  over  which  a 
blessing  is  pronounced.  This  name  was  given  to  one  of  the 
cups  at  the  feast  of  the  Passover.  "  Which  we  bless  "  might 
seem  tautological ;   but  it  is  necessary  for  the  argument  to 


X.,  17-22.  F/RSl^  CORINTHIANS  loi 

point  out  that  all  were  concerned  in  and  gave  their  assent 
to  this  solemn  act. 

One  body  (x.,  17). — Not  only  did  the  broken  bread  .sym- 
bolise the  body  broken  on  the  cross  ;  but  the  single  loaf, 
made  up  of  scattered  grains  of  wheat,  represented  the  one 
body  of  believers  who  were  scattered  in  many  places.  This 
idea  is  best  brought  out  by  the  marginal  translation  ;  and  it 
is  appropriate  here  because  it  indicates  the  obligation  of  each 
individual  to  a  corporate  brotherhood.  Christians  could  not 
act  as  though  each  man's  belief  and  practice  were  his  own 
private  affair. 

Israel  after  the  flesh  (x.,  18)  ;  that  is,  the  historic  people, 
distinguished,  by  implication,  from  the  spiritual  Israel  (.see 
Gal.  vi.,  16). 

Communion  with  the  altar  (x.,  18). — Eating  of  sacrifices 
was  not  merel}'  partaking  of  food,  but  sharing  in  everything 
that  the  altar  signified. 

77/a/  a  thing  sacrificed  to  idols  is  anything  (x.,  19). — This 
might  seem  to  follow  from  what  has  just  been  said.  But  it 
is  not  so.  The  meat  in  itself  is  nothing,  and  can  do  neither 
harm  nor  good  ;  and  an  idol  is  simply  a  body  of  wood  or 
stone.  But  the  religious  associations  give  them  a  power  and 
meaning  which  they  have  not  in  themselves. 

They  sacrifice  to  devils  (x.,  20). — It  was  the  common  belief 
of  the  early  Christians  that  the  gods  of  the  heathen  were 
evil  spirits,  and  Paul  here  distinctly  sanctions  this  belief. 
The  statement  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  previous  verse,  or 
with  viii.,  4  ;  for  these  spirits  were  not  gods,  and  the  idols 
had  none  of  the  power  ascribed  to  them.  The  old  belief  in 
demons  has  pas.sed  away  from  most  cultivated  men,  and  I 
think  even  the  belief  of  those  who  Consider  themselves  bound 
b}'  the  letter  of  Scripture  is  of  rather  an  antiquarian  kind. 

Do  ice  provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy  f  (x.,  22). — We  seem  to 
do  so  by  this  divided  allegiance.  We  cannot  sanction  idol- 
atry and  serve  Christ  at  the  same  time. 


T02  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  x.,  23-29. 

The  subject  is  concluded  by  the  introduction  of  some  special 
rules,  succeeded  by  a  final  exhortation  (x.,  23-xi,,  i). 

All  things  are  lawful ;  but  all  things  are  not  expedient  (x., 
23). — The  same  statement  occurs  in  vi.,  12,  so  that  it  seems 
to  have  fixed  itself  in  Paul's  mind  as  a  sort  of  maxim  about 
things  indifferent.  Regard  must  be  paid  to  utility  and  edifi- 
cation as  weH  as  to  abstract  right.  We  must  think  of  our 
neighbours  as  well  as  ourselves. 

Asking  no  question  for  conscience  sake  (x.,  25) :  either,  ask- 
ing no  question  dictated  by  conscientious  scruples  ;  or, 
better,  refraining  from  questions,  so  as  not  to  disturb  your 
conscience  by  associating  the  meat  with  sacrifice.  The  case 
seems  to  be  supposed  of  a  man  whose  judgment  is  convinced, 
but  who  cannot  quite  get  rid  of  old  associations. 

The  earth  is  the  Lord'' s  (x.,  26). — The  words  are  from 
Psalm  xxiv.,  i.  Everything,  whether  offered  to  an  idol  or 
not,  is  God's,  and  therefore  pure. 

Biddeth  you  to  a  feast  (x.,  27)  ;  clearly  a  private  one,  for 
at  a  sacrificial  feast  the  origin  of  the  meat  would  be  known. 
This  is  therefore  not  opposed  to  viii.,  10. 

If  any  man  say  unto  you  (x.,  28). — It  is  not  necessary  to 
limit  this  reference.  If  the  man  was  a  heathen,  the  Christian 
ought  to  show  that  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  idol- 
atr)^  and  so  bear  his  testimony  for  the  good  of  his  unbe- 
lieving friend  ;  if  the  man  was  a  weak  believer,  then  he  who 
was  strong  in  faith  ought  not  to  offend,  and  tempt  into  vio- 
lating his  conscience,  one  whose  only  fault  was  to  be  too 
.scrupulous.  The  allusion  to  conscience,  however,  is  more 
suitable  in  the  latter  case. 

Why  is  my  liberty  judged  by  another  conscience  f  (x.,  29). — 
The  connection  is  b}^  no  means  clear.  The  words  can  hardly 
mean,  do  not  let  me  act  in  such  a  way  as  to  expose  my 
liberty  to  another's  judgment,  as  I  should  do  if  I  ate  before 
a  weak  brother  ;  for  in  the  next  verse  it  is  clearly  assumed 
that  he  does  eat.     We  may  perhaps  suppose  that  Paul  is 


X.,  33-xi.,  3.      FIRST  CORINTHIANS  103 

referring  to  the  main  thesis  laid  down  in  25-27,  28,  29^  being 
a  parenthetical  qualification.  The  meaning  is  then  clear  : 
I  must  follow  my  own  conscience  (except  when  by  so  doing 
I  should  actually  injure  another),  and  no  one  has  a  right  to 
blame  my  conduct  in  these  outward  things,  so  long  as  I  do 
all  to  the  glory  of  God.  It  is  thought  that  Paul's  advice 
here  is  inconsistent  with  the  decree  in  Acts  xv.  vStrictly,  it 
is  so,  and  the  Apostle  nowhere  mentions  that  decree.  Still 
he  may  have  thought  it  was  sufficiently  fulfilled  by  acting 
on  the  principle,  do  not  knowingly  eat  sacrificial  meat,  but 
you  need  not  take  any  pains  to  know. 

I  also  please  all  men  (x.,  2Z)^  as  was  fully  illustrated  in  ix. 
These  words  confirm  the  connection  in  the  argument  which 
we  assigned  to  that  chapter. 

From  the  subject  of  idolatry  we  turn,  in  the  next  section,  to  that 
of  certain  disorders  which  had  arisen  in  the  meetings  of  the  church 
(xi.,  2-34). 

Paul  addresses  himself  first  to  the  conduct  of  women  (xi.,  2-16). 

This  passage  contains  the  strangest  arguments  in  the 
Epistle  ;  and  it  almost  appears  from  v.  16  as  if  Paul  himself 
did  not  find  them  altogether  convincing,  and  had  to  appeal 
to  general  practice,  and  from  11,  12  as  if  he  felt  that  they 
might  be  regarded  as  inconsistent  with  his  own  principles 
(Gal.  iii.,  28).  But,  as  he  said,  "all  things  are  not  expe- 
dient" ;  and  breaches  of  social  propriety  may  indicate  a 
failure  of  moral  perception.  A  glaring  violation  of  usage 
might  have  injured  the  Christian  cause. 

The  traditions  (xi.,  2),  not  in  the  modern  sense  of  things 
handed  down  through  successive  generations,  but  of  doc- 
trines delivered  by  the  teachers  to  the  disciples.  This  indi- 
cates an  accepted  body  of  teaching. 

The  head  of  every  man  is  Christ  (xi.,  3)— This  verse  contains 
the  one  principle  in  the  passage  which  is  permanently  regu- 
lative. There  is  a  proper  subordination  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  society  ;  and  this,  when  duly  recognised,  creates 


I04  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  xi.,  5-10. 

that  mutual  reverence  which  supphes  the  moral  basis  for  the 
observance  of  social  etiquette.  Christ  was  acknowledged  by 
ever}^  Christian  to  be  the  head  of  the  race  ;  but  Paul  is  not 
satisfied  till  he  reaches  the  highest  of  all  :  the  head  of  Christ 
is  God,  and  from  Him  flow  the  various  orders  and  relations 
of  human  life.     This  thought  is  repeated  in  v.  12. 

Every  woman  praying  or  prophesying  (xi.,  5). — This  clearly 
recognises  a  public  place  for  women  in  the  services  of  the 
Church  ;  for  prophesying  can  only  refer  to  the  public  utter- 
ance of  inspired  speech.  From  the  connection  it  seems  prob- 
able that  the  "  praying  "  also  refers  to  a  public  leading  of 
the  prayer.  Such  a  practice,  however,  did  not  continue  in 
the  Church. 

The  image  and gloiy  of  God  (xi.,  7)- — This  statement  and 
the  following  argument  are  founded  on  the  narrative  of  the 
creation  in  Genesis.  Gen.  i.,  27,  suggests  a  different  view  ; 
but  this  was  harmonised  with  the  narrative  of  ii.,  21  sqq. 
Paul  maj^  possibly  have  understood  the  earlier  passage  as 
referring  to  the  archetypal  man. 

Because  of  the  angels  (xi.,  lo). — This  is  most  probably  to 
be  explained  hy  the  belief  that  good  angels  were  invisiblj^ 
present  in  the  services  of  the  Church.  Some  think  bad 
angels  are  meant,  and  that  there  is  an  allusion  to  Gen.  vi., 
2.  Usage  favours  the  former  view,  "  the  angels  "  (without 
qualification)  always  standing  for  good  angels.  The  veil 
was  a  mark  of  respect  to  them.  With  the  other  interpre- 
tation, it  was  a  defence  against  their  wiles. 

Paul  has  now  to  turn  to  a  much  more  serious  subject,  and  reprove 
an  almost  incredible  irreverence  and  laxity  in  connection  with  the 
Lord's  Supper  (xi.,  17-34). 

From  this  passage  we  learn  incidentally  several  interesting 
particulars.  The  disciples  already  met  together  in  some 
appropriate  building,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  private 
"houses."     lyike  many  Gentile  societies,  they  had  a  com- 


xi.,  17,  18.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  105 

moil  meal  in  token  of  their  brotherhood,  and  of  this  the 
Lord's  Supper  still  formed  a  part.  Apparently  they  fol- 
lowed a  practice  which  was  not  unusual,  of  bringing  their 
own  provisions.  These  ought  to  have  been  placed  in  a  com- 
mon stock  before  the  supper  began,  so  that  all  might  share 
alike  ;  but  iiLstead  of  that  each  took  his  supper  as  he  ar- 
rived, so  that  the  poor  did  not  get  anything  to  satisfy  their 
hunger,  while  others  were  so  self-indulgent  as  to  drink  to 
excess.  The  meeting  was  held  in  the  evening,  but  the  day 
is  not  specified.  According  to  our  earliest  accounts  it  was 
Sunday.  The  breaking  of  bread  in  memory  of  Christ's 
death  apparently  took  place  during  the  meal,  whereas  the 
cup  was  handed  round  "after  supper."  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  words  of  institution  are  reported  with  considerable 
differences,  the  most  important  being  that  for  the  words 
"  This  is  my  blood  of  the  covenant,"  of  Matthew  and  Mark, 
Paul  substitutes,  "This  cup  is  the  new  covenant  in  my 
blood."  This  shows  that  more  value  was  attached  to  the 
general  sentiment  than  to  the  precise  phrases,  and  that 
the  reports  furnish  a  very  insecure  basis  on  which  to  erect  a 
dogma. 

I  praise  you  not  (xi,,  17),  in  evident  contrast  with  "  I  praise 
you"  of  V.  2.  He  praises  them  before  blaming  them,  and 
reserves  his  more  severe  censures  till  he  has  disposed  of 
lighter  matters. 

hi  the  clmrch  (xi.,  18)  ;  referring,  not  to  the  building,  but 
to  the  assembly,  which  the  word  properly  signifies. 

Divisions  (xi.,  18). — The  context  suggests  that  these  were 
class  divisions,  or  at  least  unfriendly  separations,  which 
turned  the  Lord's  Supper,  with  its  brotherly  union,  into 
each  man's  private  supper.  The  word  "heresies,"  in  the 
next  verse,  only  varies  the  expression  ;  for  there  is  nothing 
to  suggest  its  later  sense  of  doctrinal  error.  The  statement 
that  there  must  be  heresies  in  order  to  show  who  are  ap- 
proved (by  their  not  taking  part  in  them)  must,  I  think,  be 


io6  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         xi.,  22,  23. 

ironical.  The  words  are,  however,  also  explained  as  a  seri- 
ous statement  :  divisions  must  result  in  parties,  it  being 
the  Divine  intention  thus  to  manifest  the  approved. 

That  have  not  (xi.,  22)  ;  not,  that  have  not  houses,  but 
simply  those  that  have  no  possessions,  the  poor, 

/  received  of  the  Lord  (xi.,  23). — The  question  is  raised 
whether  Paul  refers  to  an  immediate  communication  made  to 
himself  by  Christ,  or  to  something  transmitted  to  him  through 
others.  The  preposition  translated  "of"  does  not  determine 
this  question.  In  favour  of  a  direct  revelation  we  may  notice 
the  emphatic  "  I  "  (as  it  is  in  the  Greek)  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence,— I,  as  distinguished  from  others,  learned  this 
from  the  L,ord.  The  emphasis,  however,  may  be  due  partly 
to  the  contrast  with  the  following  "you,"  and  partly  to  the 
previous  context, — I  cannot  praise  you,  for  /  learned  a  very 
different  lesson.  It  is  a  more  weighty  consideration  that,  if 
the  words  refer  to  the  whole  narrative,  we  should  expect  "  in 
relation  to  the  L/Ord  "  instead  of  "  from  the  Lord."  I  think 
it  is  possible,  however,  that  Paul  refers  in  the  first  instance 
only  to  the  words  of  institution,  and  then  changing  his 
momentary  purpose  (as  he  often  does)  relates  the  connected 
facts  for  the  sake  of  completeness.  What  he  really  wanted 
to  bring  out  was  that  the  words  which  separated  the  bread 
and  wine  from  common  food  proceeded  from  the  Lord  him- 
self. If  this  suggestion  be  tenable,  it  will  remove  all  diffi- 
culty from  the  preposition  ;  for,  to  this  day,  we  might  say 
"We  received  from  the  Lord  the  commandment  to  love  one 
another,"  or,  "  We  received  from  the  Lord  the  saying,  this 
is  my  body,"  '  Against  understanding  the  words  as  descrip- 
tive of  a  direct  revelation  we  may  plead  not  only  the  improba- 
bility of  such  a  supernatural  communication  of  matters  of 
fact  which  could  be  easily  learned,  but  that  Paul  himself 

'  There  is  a  good  example  of  the  Greek  use  in  Origen,  Cant.  Cels.,  iv., 
44,   where,  referring   to  Paul,  he   sajs    ovx  rj/J-slS  dtdd(5H0M£v,  dXA'  • 
avcoQev  dvto  6o(pc^v  7tcxpeiX?jq)a/u£v. 


xi.,  24-27.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  107 

never  claims  such  miraculous  knowledge  ;  and,  further,  that, 
if  he  had  intended  this,  he  would  have  laid  more  stress  upon 
it.  My  own  judgment  inclines  against  the  view  that  he 
referred  to  a  revelation. 

This  is  viy  body  (xi.,  24). — On  these  words  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  has  been  founded,  though  it  seems  im- 
possible that  the  Apostles,  without  further  explanation,  can 
have  believed  that  the  bread  in  Christ's  own  hand  was  also 
the  body  which  was  there  before  their  eyes  ;  and  even  if  that 
particular  bread  was  his  body,  it  would  not  follow  that  any 
other  bread  would  be  so.  The  meal  had  been  symbolical  of 
the  first  Passover  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  and  now  its 
significance  was  changed.  The  word  "is,"  therefore,  is 
quite  appropriate,  being  used  as  it  is  in  the  explanation  of  a 
parable,  for  instance,  "  The  seed  is  the  word  of  God  "  (Luke 
viii.,  11).  The  votaries  of  literalism  ought  to  believe  that 
Jesus  was  really  a  paschal  sheep  (i  Cor.  v.,  7). 

Ye  proclaim  (xi.,  26). — The  term  seems  to  imply  the 
use  of  certain  words,  but  of  what  precise  nature  we  do  not 
know. 

Unworthily  (xi.,  27). — The  whole  context  shows  that 
the  reference  is  not  to  the  general  character  of  the  recipient, 
but  to  the  want  of  reverence  in  the  manner  of  celebration. 

Shall  be  guilty  of  the  body  a7id  the  blood  of  the  Lord 
(xi.,  27)  ;  that  is,  shall  be  guilty  of  treating  them  with  disre- 
spect. For  he  who  treats  a  symbol  of  sacred  things  pro- 
fanely profanes  the  thing  symbolized.  No  one  can  treat  the 
relic  of  a  beloved  friend  as  if  it  were  only  so  much  common 
matter  ;  but  to  the  tender  spirit  it  becomes  spiritual.  So,  on 
every  theory,  the  l')read  and  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  are 
laden  with  hallowed  associations,  and  in  them  the  reverent 
heart  of  discipleship  "  discerns  "  far  more  than  mere  physical 
food  and  drink.  A  very  moderate  amount  of  "proving" 
oneself  would  render  impossible  such  irreverence  as  was  dis- 
played at  Corinth, 


io8  FIRST  CORINTHIANS    xi.,  30-xii.,  3. 

Maiiy  among  you  are  weak  (xi.,  30). — The  fact  of  sick- 
ness and  death  among  the  Corinthians  is  referred  to  as 
a  "judgment." 

Wait  0)1  e  for  another  (xi.,  33),  said  in  relation  to  v.  21. 
The}^  should  wait,  so  as  to  make  the  meal  really  one  of 
brotherly  communion  ;  and  if  anyone  was  so  hungry  as  to 
require  a  hearty  meal,  he  should  satisfy  his  needs  at  home. 

The  subject  once  more  changes,  and,  in  this  sixth  section,  prob- 
ably in  reply  to  a  question  addressed  to  him  from  Corinth,  Paul 
deals  at  considerable  length  with  the  subject  of  spiritual  gifts 
(xii.-xiv.). 

First,  the  general  principle  is  laid  down  (xii.,  1-3). 

If  we  are  to  judge  from  the  treatment,  some  of  the  Corin- 
thians supposed  that  the  manifestations  of  the  Spirit  must  be 
of  an  exceptional  and  startling  kind,  and  were  inclined  to 
attach  most  importance  to  those  that  were  of  least  value.  Paul, 
therefore,  begins  by  pointing  out  that  the  grand  distinction 
was  between  the  idolater  and  the  believer,  and  that  no  one 
could  make  the  Christian  confession,  "Jesus  is  Lord,"  ex- 
cept under  the  influence  of  the  H0I3'  Spirit.  We  might  apply 
this  to  differences  of  opinion  among  those  who  confess  the 
same  Lord,  and  then  exalt  themselves  one  against  another. 

''The  Spirit  of  Godr  "  the  Holy  Spirit''  (xii.,  3).— These 
expressions  are  clearly  synonymous,  and  we  must  therefore 
.interpret  the  latter  b}^  the  former.  As  the  spirit  of  a  man 
does  not  denote  either  a  distinct  person  from  the  man  or  a 
second  or  third  person  within  him,  so  "  the  Spirit  of  God  " 
suggests,  not  a  distinct  person,  but  rather  that  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  Divine  personalit)',  the  diffused  energy 
of  the  Divine  life  breathed  into  the  hearts  of  men.  It  is 
therefore  truly  Divine,  and  the  words  may  be  used  to  denote 
God  Himself,  except  that  they  always  refer  to  Him  only 
as  operating  w^ithin  the  soul  of  man.  This  may  explain 
the  distinct  personal  language  of  v.  11,  the  Spirit  carrying 
with  it  and  executing  the  Divine  will,  and  so  having  the 


xii.,  4-10.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  109 

same  function  as  is  ascribed  to  God  in  v.  6.     Compare  also 
V.   18. 

Having  laid  down  the  general  principle,  Paul  proceeds  to  show 
that  the  same  heavenly  Spirit  may  manifest  itself  through  a  great 
variety  of  forms  (xii.,  4-30). 

There  are  diversities  of  gifts,  hit  the  same  Spirit  (xii.,  4). — 
In  this  passage  Paul  enumerates  the  three  great  objects  of 
Christian  faith,  but,  as  usual,  with  only  a  religious  aim,  and 
without  any  attempt  at  philosophical  definition.  The  Spirit 
and  the  Lord  are  both  alike  distinguished  from  God,  although 
the  Spirit  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Spirit  of  God.  We  learn, 
however,  from  v.  8,  that  it  is  distinct  in  this  sense,  that  it  is 
regarded  as  the  power  "  through"  which  God  bestows  His 
gifts.  The  Apostle  begins  with  the  Spirit,  perhaps  partly 
for  the  sake  of  the  climax,  but  chiefly,  I  think,  because  it  is 
the  Spirit  that  enters  immediately  into  human  experience, 
and  because  the  question  related  to  spiritual  gifts.  The  same 
Divine  energy,  the  same  holy  character,  may  manifest  itself 
through  every  variety  of  endowment. 

Ministrations  (xii.,  5),  or  kinds  of  service,  are  properly 
spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  Lord,  or  master.  We  may 
serve  the  same  master  in  different  ways. 

To  profit  withal  (xii.,  7)  I  that  is,  with  a  view  to  what  is 
"expedient  "  (the  same  word  as  in  vi.,  12,  and  x.,  23)  and 
edifying  for  the  community. 

The  word  of  -wisdom,  etc.  (xii.,  8-10). — It  is  needless  to 
seek  for  any  careful  classification  of  the  gifts  here  enumer- 
ated, for  the  object  is  simply  to  give  examples  of  their 
variety.  For  "wisdom"  see  ii.,  6  sqq.  "The  word  of 
knowledge"  may  be  more  purely'  intellectual.  I  see  no 
reason  for  taking  "  faith  "  in  any  but  the  ordinary  sense  ; 
for  thougli  all  Christians  must  have  faith,  it  is  equally  true 
that  all  nuist  have  some  wisdom  and  knowledge,  but  in 
certain   persons   these  attain  the   rank  of  special  and  dis- 


no  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         xii.,  12-22. 

tinguishing  gifts.  What  "miracles"  or  powers  diflferent 
from  the  gifts  of  healing  are  intended  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
"  Discernings  of  spirits"  may  refer  to  the  sure  perception 
whether  a  man  was  moved  by  a  genuine  inspiration  or  not. 
False  prophets  were  not  unknown  in  the  Church.  (See 
Matt,  vii.,  15,  I  John  iv.,  i  ;  also  "The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,"  xi.,  3-12).  The  speaking  with  tongues 
is  considered  in  xiv. 

The  principle  thus  laid  down  is  next  illustrated  bj^  an 
elaborate  comparison  of  the  Church  to  the  body  with  its 
many  members  (xii.,  12-30).  The  passage  presents  a  strik- 
ingly complete  view  of  the  society  as  an  organism,  in  dis- 
tinction from  a  mere  aggregate  of  individuals.  For  a  similar 
idea  in  ancient  literature  reference  is  justly  made  to  the 
speech  which  Menenius  Agrippa  addressed  to  the  Roman 
plebs,'  and  to  the  argument  in  Plato's  Republic  that  the 
whole  body  feels  the  pain  of  a  part.'^ 

So  also  is  Christ  (xii.,  12). — At  first  sight  it  would  seem  as 
though  "  Christ  "  stood  here  for  the  whole  Christian  bod}-  ; 
but  this  would  be  inconsistent  with  v.  27,  and  it  is  more 
likely  that  Christ  is  regarded  as  the  animating  spirit  to 
whom  the  body  and  its  members  belonged.  Compare  xv. , 
45,  and  2  Cor.  iii.,  17. 

Were  all  made  to  dri^ik  of  07ie  Spirit  (xii.,  13). — This  can 
hardly  refer  to  the  L/ord's  Supper,  owing  to  the  past  tense. 
The  comparison  of  drinking  is  added  to  that  of  baptising  to 
indicate  more  distinctly  that  the  Spirit  entered  into  vital 
union  with  the  Christian  body. 

I  am  71  ot  of  the  body  (xii.,  15, 16)  ;  literally  "  out  of,"  that 
is,  derived  from  and  dependent  on  the  body,  and  therefore 
having  duties  towards  it. 

Which  seem  to  be  more  feeble  (xii.,  22). — This  cannot  refer  to 
the  hands  and  feet,  as  the  context  suggests  ;  for  no  one 
could  suppose  these  to  be  superfluous,  or  particularly  feeble. 
'  Livy,  ii.,  32.  ^  V.  10,  p.  462,  CD. 


xii. ,  23-28.         FIRS T  CORINTHIANS  1 1 1 

The  allusion  must  be,  in  a  general  way,  to  organs  of  which 
the  activity  is  not  very  obvious,  and  which,  on  a  superficial 
view,  seem  to  demand  more  service  than  they  render. 

Up07i  these  we  bestoiv  more  abundant  hottour  (xii.  23). — It 
would  be  better  to  translate,  "We  array  these  in  more 
abundant  honour,"  for  then  it  would  be  obvious,  as  it  is  in 
the  Greek,  that  the  allusion  is  to  clothes  and  ornaments. 
The  word  is  the  same  as  in  Matt,  xxvii.,  28,  they  "  put  on 
him  a  scarlet  robe." 

Giving  more  abioida>it  honour  (xii.,  24). — The  reference 
must  still  be  to  clothes,  which  we  use  through  a  God-given 
instinct. 

Li  the  church  (xii.,  28). — The  word  is  probably  used  here  in 
its  universal  sense  ;  for  what  is  said  cannot  be  limited  to  the 
Corinthians,     Compare  xv.,  9,  Gal.  i.,  13,  Phil,  iii.,  6. 

First  apostles  (xii.,  28). — The  first  three  members  of  the 
list  are  persons  who  probably  exercised  continuous  func- 
tions ;  and  then  the  functions  themselves  are  introduced 
instead  of  the  persons  exercising  them,  perhaps  because  they 
were  of  a  more  fitful  character,  and  not  permanently  attached 
to  particular  people. 

Before  speaking  fully  of  the  gift  of  tongues,  Paul,  in  order  to  in- 
dicate the  right  point  of  view,  introduces  the  praise  of  love  as  that 
without  which  all  gifts  are  worthless  (xii.,  31-xiii.,  13). 

In*spiritual  as  in  physical  things  men  are  too  apt  to  prefer 
fireworks  to  the  everlasting  stars,  and  to  see  God  in  what  is 
exceptional  and  startling,  rather  than  in  the  calm  and  abid- 
ing presence  of  His  eternal  Spirit.  This  is  a  great  danger  in 
times  of  religious  excitement ;  and  nothing  shows  the  grand- 
eur of  Paul's  mind  more  clearly  than  the  fact  that,  while  he 
had  a  wonderful  range  of  gifts,  aiid  spake  with  tongues 
more  than  they  all  (xiv.,  18),  he  used  them  only  to  minister 
to  what  was  higher  and  more  enduring,  and  clearly  per- 
ceived that  the  life  of  Christ  within  the  heart,  which  be- 
longed to  every  disciple,  was  the  purest  gift  of  the  Spirit. 


Hi  FIRST  CORINTHIANS     xii.,  31-xm.,  7. 

The  subject  is  introduced  by  a  verse  which  forms  a  transi- 
tion from  the  previous  discussion,  and  may,  therefore,  be 
regarded  either  as  the  close  of  the  last  paragraph,  or  as  the 
beginning  of  the  new  one  (xii.,  31).  The  admonition  im- 
plies that  the  reception  of  gifts  is  in  part  dependent  on  our- 
selves. We  cannot  create  any  gift,  but  we  may  seek  for  it  ; 
and  our  selfish  glorying  in  lower  gifts  may  unfit  us  for  the 
higher.  The  more  excellent  way  of  love  is  open  to  all,  and 
fits  us  for  whatever  it  may  please  God  to  bestow. 

The  Apostle  begins  by  declaring  that  without  love  all 
gifts  are  worthless  (xiii.,  I-3).  Men  are  prone  to  think  that 
endowment  may  be  a  substitute  for  character.  But  without 
love  the  gift  of  tongues,  of  which  the  Corinthians  were  so 
proud,  became  an  unmeaning  noise  ;  and  equally  valueless, 
at  least  to  the  man  himself,  were  higher  gifts  of  inspired 
speech,  of  intellectual  insight,  even  of  faith  before  which  all 
obstacles  melted  away.  The  extremest  acts  of  self-denial, 
in  property  or  person,  might  be  purely  external,  and  only 
the  inward  spirit  of  love  could  profit. 

The  next  few  verses  describe  the  characteristics  of  love 
(xiii.,  4-7)-  These  clearly  relate  to  the  habitual  temper  of 
the  mind,  and  might  be  absent,  though  the  gifts  previously 
mentioned  were  present.  The  meaning  of  most  of  the  state- 
ments is  sufficiently  obvious.  "  Rejoiceth  not  in  unright- 
eousness" is  opposed  to  that  malicious  self-flattery  wdiicli 
takes  pleasure  in  the  faults  of  others,  "  Truth  "  is  personi- 
fied, and  represented  as  rejoicing,  while  love  shares  in  its 
joy.  If  this  is  properly  antithetical  to  the  previous  clause, 
the  reference  must  be  to  the  pleasure  which  truth  takes  in 
finding  out  the  righteousness  of  another.  The  word  "  all," 
as  usual,  must  be  limited  by  the  general  .sense  of  the  pa.ss- 
age.  lyove  does  not  believe  all  things  mean  and  odious,  or 
hope  for  the  destruction  of  its  enemies.  It  believes  all  that 
ought  to  be  believed,  takes  a  high  and  generous  view  of 
men's  conduct,  and  always  hopes  for  the  best. 


xiii.,  8-13.  FIRST  COR IXTHIANS  113 

Lastly,  love  is  eternal,  while  all  gifts  are  partial  and  tran- 
sitory (xiii.,  8-13).  It  is  highly  remarkable  that  Paul,  far 
from  asserting  that  he  has  an  infallible  and  final  revelation, 
distinctly  declares  that  knowledge  (of  the  Divine  mysteries, 
see  V.  2)  and  even  prophecy  are  only  in  part,  and  that  that 
which  is  perfect  is  yet  to  come.  He  illustrates  the  growth 
of  spiritual  insight  by  the  passage  from  childhood  to  man- 
hood, and  the  vagueness  of  its  perception  b}-  the  dim  images 
in  a  metallic  mirror.'  We  see  the  reflection  of  the  Divine 
form,  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of  Christ  (2  Cor.  iv.,  6), 
but  cannot  yet  look  upon  Him  with  direct  gaze,  and  know 
Him  as  He  knows  us.  Knowledge  must  grow  and  thought 
must  change  in  spite  of  the  unbelief  of  bigots  ;  but  the  spirit 
of  Christianity  abides, — faith  in  God,  hope  of  an  immortal 
sonship,  love  which  is  the  essence  of  God.  And  because 
love  is  His  essence,  it  is  greater  than  faith  and  hope,  for 
these  belong  only  to  dependent  creatures,  whereas  love  occu- 
pies the  throne  of  the  universe,  and,  when  it  reigns  in  our 
hearts,  God  Himself  abides  in  us,  and  we  in  Him. 

Having  laid  down  his  grand  corrective  principle,  Paul  is  prepared 
to  deal  more  particularly  with  the  gift  of  tongues,  which  was  too 
highly  valued  and  unwisely  exercised  at  Corinth  (xiv.,  1-25). 

The  exalted  and  powerful  emotions  of  the  first  Christians 
gave  rise  to  some  strange  manifestations,  which  did  not  be- 
long to  the  permanent  life  of  the  Church,  but  on  account  of 
their  singularity  were  taken  by  inferior  minds  as  the  most 
certain  tokens  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  apparent  from  this 
chapter  that  the  gift  of  tongues  was  not  the  power  of  speak- 
ing foreign  languages,  of  which  there  is  no  trace,  and  which 
would  have  been  perfectly  useless  in  the  circumstances,  but 
an  ecstatic  utterance,  in  which  the  control  of  the  understand- 
ing was  suspended,  and  the  person  thus  affected  was  borne 
away  upon  a  flood  of  religious  feeling.     Why  this  utterance 

'  It  was  a  saying  among  the  Jews  that  Moses  saw  in  a  clear  mirror, 
but  all  the  prophets  in  a  dark  one  (W eher,  Jiidisc/ie  Theologie,  p.  82). 


114  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  xiv.,  1-5. 

was  called  speaking  with  a  tongue,  or  with  tongues,  is  doubt- 
ful. It  may  have  been  because  the  sounds  w^ere  taken  to  be 
a  sort  of  heavenly  language,  or  because  the  tongue  was  the 
organ  which  the  Spirit  used  for  its  own  purposes.  The  plu- 
ral, the  kinds  of  tongues,  may  refer  to  various  modes  of  ex- 
pression, adapted  to  praying,  singing,  blessing,  giving  thanks 
(see  vv.  14-17).  With  this  gift,  that  of  prophecy,  which  was 
also  an  inspired  utterance,  is  naturally  compared.  The 
speaker  with  tongues  could  so  far  control  himself  as  not  to 
give  way  to  the  initial  impulse  {v.  28)  ;  but  as  soon  as  he 
began  to  speak,  his  own  volition  apparently  vanished.  The 
prophets,  on  the  other  hand,  retained  'their  self-control 
throughout  {vv.  29-33)  >'  their  understanding  rather  than 
their  tongue  was  the  seat  of  inspiration  ;  and  they  spoke 
intelligible  language,  which  tended  to  edify,  to  exhort,  to 
console  (v.  3). 

After  a  momentary  exhortation  to  follow  the  more  excel- 
lent way  of  love,  the  discussion  begins  (xiv.,  l)  by  resuming 
the  advice  of  xii.,  31,  descending,  however,  from  the  general 
to  the  particular,  for  prophecy  is  selected  as  the  greater  gift, 
which  ought  to  be  preferred  to  speaking  with  tongues.  The 
first  reason  alleged  is  that  the  latter  was  not  understood,  and 
therefore  did  not  conduce  to  the  edification  of  the  Church 
(xiv.,  2-T9). 

Understa,ndeth  (xiv.,  2). — The  Greek  is  "  hears  "  ;  but  as 
the  sequel  shows  that  there  were  audible  sounds,  the  mean- 
ing must  be  that  no  one  hears  intelligible  words.  Conse- 
quently, the  following  clause  cannot  mean  that  the  man 
speaks  within  himself,  and  not  vocally,  but  that  in  a  state 
of  inspiration  he  speaks  things  which  are  hidden  from  the 
by-standers. 

Except  he  interpret  (xiv.,  5). — It  is  evident  from  this  and 
V.  13  that  the  person  affected  sometimes  had  a  distinct  mean- 
ing, which,  when  the  emotion  was  past,  he  was  able  to  ex- 
plain ;    and   sometimes  a  sympathetic  listener  was  able  to 


xiv.,  6-12.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  ,  15 

translate   the  ecstatic  sounds   into  intelligible  speech  (vv 
27,  28). 

1/  I  come  (xiv.,  6).— The  "  I  "  has  no  emphasis  in  the 
Greek,  and  accordingly  the  first  person  is  used  here  simply 
as  a  representative  example. 

U7iless  I  speak  (xiv.,  6).-  The  four  modes  of  speech  cannot 
refer  to  the  interpretation  of  what  was  spoken  with  tongues. 
This  verse  must  therefore  be  another  way  of  indicating\ow 
unprofitable  the  gift  of  tongues  was  if  it  existed  alone.  It 
seems  clear  that  four  possible  modes  of  intelligent  speech  are 
indicated,  and  we  cannot  legitimately  say  that  prophesving 
was  the  way  in  which  a  revelation  was  declared,  and  teacir- 
ing  was  the  utterance  of  knowledge.  Perhaps  revelation 
and  knowledge  refer  to  spiritual  and  intellectual  modes  of  in- 
sight in  particular  instances,  while  prophesying  denotes  pro- 
longed and  impressive  exhortation,  which  might  include  the 
matter  of  a  revelation,  as  we  learn  from  v.  30,  and  teaching 
is  the  name  for  continuous  instruction  in  the  faith. 

Barbarian  (xiv.,  Ii).— The  word  ought  to  be  translated 
"  foreigner,"  for  barbarian  xyith  us  signifies,  not  a  man  who 
speaks  a  foreign  language,  but  one  who  is  rude  and  fierce  in 
manners. 

Zealous  of  spiritual  gi/is  (xiv.,  12).— The  Greek  is  ' '  zealous 
of  spirits,"  involving  the  notion  that  each  gift  had  its  own 
spirit.  As  Paul  pronounced  all  the  gifts  to  be  manifestations 
of  one  Spirit,  he  may  be  speaking  here  with  a  slight  irony 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Corinthians.  Or  it  is  possible 
that  as  the  one  Logos,  or  Thought,  was  conceived  as  resolv- 
ing Itself  into  innumerable  logoi,  or  thoughts,  so  Paul  may 
have  looked  upon  each  gift  as  having  its  own  spirit,  though 
all  were  subsumed  under  the  one  universal  Spirit  of  God.'"" 

'Hermasspenks  of  various  evil  dispositions  as  "spirits."  ny.vnara 
{Maud.,  V.  11.  5  sqq..  IX.  11,  X.  i.  2,  XI.  4),  and  says,  nav  yap  nvev^ux 
ccKo  fimv   6,My  .      ,hc^^j^y   lany  and   r./f   dwdueooi   rov 

'Jeiuv  TiyEv/tcxruS  (J/u/ia.,  XI.  5j. 


it6  first  CORINTHIANS        xiv.,  13-20. 

Pray  that  he  may  interpret  (xiv.,  13). — The  most  obvious 
sense  is,  pray  for  the  gift  of  interpretation,  which  did  not 
always  accompany  the  speaking  with  tongues  {y.  28).  It 
is  objected  to  this  that  "pray  in  a  tongue,"  in  the  next 
verse,  must  determine  the  meaning,  and  accordingly  we 
must  understand  the  phrase  thus, — If  a  man  speak  in  a 
tongue,  let  him  do  so  in  prayer.  But  "pray,"  in  the  fol- 
lowing verse,  is  simply  an  example,  suggested  perhaps  by 
the  word  just  used  ;  and  the  illustration  surely  implies  that 
prayer  was  as  little  open  to  interpretation  as  other  forms  of 
the  gift. 

My  spirit prayeth  (xiv.,  14)  ;  not  the  spirit  by  which  I  am  in- 
spired, but  my  spiritual  as  opposed  to  my  intellectual  faculty. 
Though  spirit  and  understanding  (or  reason)  maj^  be  used 
of  the  same  element  in  our  nature,  they  are  not  strictly 
synonymous,  the  former  referring  to  the  organ  of  our  com- 
munion with  God,  the  latter  to  our  rational  powers.  In  the 
case  supposed  there  is  a  sense  of  religious  satisfaction,  which 
is  a  precious  experience  for  the  man  himself,  but  there  is  no 
mental  perception  of  truth  which  may  be  told  to  others,  and 
so  the  understanding  is  fruitless  for  their  edification. 

The  place  of  the  unlearned  (xiv.,  16). — "  Place  "  may  be 
understood  literally, — occupies  the  place  reserved  for  the  un- 
learned,— but  may  refer  to  condition, — is  classed  among  the 
unlearned.  The  "unlearned"  in  vv.  23,  24,  are  coupled 
with  the  "  unbelieving,"  and  yet  distinguished  from  them. 
They  seem  to  be  people  who  may  stray  into  the  Christian 
assembly,  and  so  far  participate  in  its  services  as  to  say 
"  amen  "  after  prayer  or  thanksgiving,  but  are  not  yet 
enrolled  among  the  believers. 

A  second  reason  for  preferring  prophecy  was  that  the 
speaking  with  tongues  was  not  profitable  to  unbelievers  (xiv., 
20-25). 

Be  not  children  in  mind  (xiv.,  20). — This  address  is  some- 
times taken  as  the  closing  of  the  preceding  paragraph  ;  but 


xiv.,  21-26.         FIRST  CORINTHIANS  117 

the  appeal,  "brethren,"  points  rather  to  a  new  line  of 
thought.  The  connection  may  be  thus  indicated  :  you  can- 
not influence  the  outside  world  by  unintelligible  marvels, 
but  by  manliness  of  understanding  and  guilelessness  of 
heart. 

/;^  the  law  {■x.W.f  2l),  here  used  in  its  widest  sense  to  mean 
the  Old  Testament.  The  quotation  is  taken  loosely  from 
I.saiah  xxviii.,  11,  12,  where  the  Prophet  threatens  the  rulers 
that,  as  they  will  not  listen  to  his  precepts,  they  shall  be 
obliged  to  hear  the  strange  language  of  the  Assyrians  ;  but 
even  then  they  will  not  hearken.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  we 
may  be  able  to  follow  the  argument  of  the  passage,  which  is 
by  no  means  clear  ;  for  at  first  sight  v.  22  seems  to  contra- 
dict 23  and  24.  The  words  of  the  Prophet  show  that  strange 
tongues  were  a  sign  that  was  intended  for  unbelievers  ;  but 
it  was  fruitless  then,  and  it  is  fruitless  now,  because  unbeliev- 
ers, when  they  hear  you,  will  only  think  you  are  mad.  But 
prophecy,  which  is  intended  for  the  edification  of  believers, 
may  make  a  deep  impression  on  the  unbeliever,  when  he 
finds  the  secret  sins  and  troubles  of  his  own  heart  laid  bare, 
and  feels  that  he  has  been  brought  into  the  real  presence  of 
God. 

The  discussion  of  the  gifts  of  tongues  and  of  prophecy  is  closed 
with  some  practical  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  meetings  of  the 
church  (xiv.,  26-33). 

The  general  principle  is  that  everything  must  tend  to  edi- 
fication, and  that  for  this  purpose  there  must  be  a  becoming 
order  and  quietness. 

A  psalm  (xiv.,  26),  probably  an  original  hymn.  "  A  revela- 
tion," a  spiritual  communication  on  some  particular  point. 
The  various  members  had  their  several  gifts.  We  may  infer 
that  the  meetings  for  worship  were  still  quite  informal  and 
spontaneous,  and  that  each  contributed  what  he  could  to  the 
religious  benefit  of  others,  sometimes  with  an  eagerness 
which  led  to  confusion,  and  defeated  the  end  in  view. 


ii8  FIRST  CORINTHIANS        xiv.,  28-33. 

Let  him  speak  to  himself  {-xiv..,  28)  ;  that  is,  at  some  other 
time  when  he  is  alone,  for  the  speaking  with  tongues  was 
loud,  and  the  word  for  "  speak  "  denotes  vocal  utterance. 

The  others  (xiv.,  29)  ;  the  other  prophets,  who  had  the 
power  of  discerning  the  spirits  of  the  prophets. 

Let  the  first  keep  silence  (xiv.,  30)  ;  perhaps  on  receiving 
some  sign  that  the  other  wished  to  speak,  and  therefore 
bringing  his  own  address  to  a  close. 

y<?  a// (xiv.,  31). — "All"  must,  as  usual,  be  understood 
from  the  context.  Here  it  must  mean  "  all  of  you  who  have 
the  gift  of  prophecy."'  In  the  second  and  third  instances  of 
its  occurrence  in  the  verse  it  naturally  means  all  who  are 
present. 

The  spirits  of  the  prophets  (xiv.,  32)  :  either  the  prophets' 
own  spirits,  the  movements  of  which  they  can  control,  or  the 
spirits  by  which  they  were  inspired  (see  the  note  on  v.  12). 

As  in  all  the  churches  of  the  saints  (xiv.,  33)- — Opinion  is 
divided  as  to  the  proper  position  of  this  clause,  some  making 
it  end  the  previous  paragraph,  others  placing  it  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  new  one.  It  seems  to  me  rather  an  awkward 
introduction  to  a  fresh  subject,  but  a  suitable  appeal  at  the 
close  of  an  argument.     See  the  notes  on  the  following  verses, 

A  paragraph  is  now  inserted  directing  women  to  be  silent  in  the 
churches  (xiv.,  34-36). 

It  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  suspicion  that  vv.  34  and  35  are 
an  interpolation.  In  a  few  manuscripts  they  are  found  after 
V.  40 ;  they  completely  interrupt  the  thread  of  the  discus- 
sion, which  is  continuous  if  we  omit  them  ;  and,  above  all, 
they  seem  clearly  to  contradict  xi.,  5,  where  the  right  of 
women  to  pra}^  and  prophesy  is  taken  for  granted.  If  the 
verses  be  retained,  we  may  suppose  that  the  "  church  "  here 
is  used  in  a  limited  sense,  of  the  larger  and  more  public 
meetings  ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  the  context  to  indicate 
this.  The  prohibition  seems  borrowed  from  the  sjmagogue, 
where  women  were  not  allowed  to  speak. 


xiv.,  34-37.        FIRST  CORINTHIANS  119 

As  also  saith  the  la:.'  (xiv.,  34),  in  Genesis  iii.,  16. 

Was  it  from  you  that  the  word  of  God  zve7it  forth?  (xiv., 
36).— An  ironical  question.  By  tiieir  conduct  one  might 
suppose  that  the}-  were  the  regulative  church  of  Christen- 
dom. This  fits  on  exactly  to  v.  i2»  where  Paul  appeals  to 
the  condition  of  other  churches,  in  all  of  which  God  was  the 
author  of  peace,  and  not  of  disorder  ;  and  it  forms  a  natural 
transition  to  what  follows. 

In  conclusion  a  few  serious  words  impress  what  has  been  said 
upon  the  readers  (xiv.,  37-40). 

Spiritual  (z'.,  37)  ;  here,  one  endow^ed  with  spiritual  gifts, 
with  special  reference  to  the  speaker  with  tongues. 

Commandment  of  the  Lord  (xiv.,  37).— This  can  hardly  re- 
fer to  any  exact  precept,  but  must  be  understood  in  a  general 
sense  :  everyone  with  true  spiritual  perception  will  see  that 
my  instructions  are  agreeable  to  the  mind  of  Christ.  If  a 
man  cannot  see  this,  he  must  remain  in  his  ignorance,  or, 
with  the  marginal  reading,  he  is  excluded  from  the  Divine 
recognition  and  acceptance.  Without  order  and  decorum 
there  is  no  real  spirituality. 

The  last  subject  discussed  in  the  Epistle  is  the  resurrection, 
about  which  doubts  and  difficulties,  in  some  cases  amounting  to 
actual  denial,  had  arisen  at  Corinth  (xv.). 

Paul  begins  by  presenting  the  facts  of  Christ's  death  and  resur- 
rection as  the  very  basis  of  his  Gospel  (xv.,  i-ii). 

This  passage  contains  the  earliest  account  which  w^e  possess 
of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  It  seems  intended  to  give  in 
chronological  order  a  list  of  all  the  appearances  of  the  risen 
Christ,  at  least  of  those  that  could  be  considered  valuable  as 
an  evidence  of  the' fact.  There  is -no  mention  of  locality  or 
concomitant  circumstances.  There  is  no  allusion  to  any  in- 
tercourse with  the  disciples,  or  to  any  spoken  words  ;  and  it 
seems  evident  that  Jesus  is  not  regarded  as  a  resuscitated 
man,  walking  about  once  more  upon  the  earth,  but  as  one 


I20  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  xv.,  1-3. 

who  has  passed  into  the  immortal  hfe,  and  now  and  again 
manifested  himself  from  the  world  beyond  the  grave.  Ac- 
cordingly there  is  no  reference  here  or  elsewhere  in  Paul  to 
the  ascension  as  distinct  from  and  subsequent  to  the  resur- 
rection. The  account  is  quite  different  from  those  contained 
in  the  Gospels  ;  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable  because 
Paul's  statement  is  presented  as  a  fixed  tradition  which  he 
received  from  others  and  handed  on  to  those  whom  he  taught. 
These  facts  create  serious  difficulties  ;  but  having  stated 
them,  the  interpreter  must  leave  it  to  the  systematic  theo- 
logian to  fit  them  into  a  scheme  of  doctrine.  Another 
observation  of  a  different  kind  requires  attention.  This 
account  would  not  be  contained  in  Paul's  Kpistles  unless 
doubts  had  arisen  at  Corinth.  The  inference  is  inevitable 
that  his  Kpistles  did  not  represent  his  habitual  teaching. 
Naturally  that  is  just  what  they  did  not  contain  ;  for  it  is 
assumed  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  is  appealed  to  only  where 
it  seems  to  have  been  forgotten,  or  was  required  to  enforce 
some  particular  line  of  in.struction. 

Make  known  (xv.,  l). — It  is  assumed  with  some  little  irony 
that  his  teaching  was  so  completely  forgotten  that  he  had  to 
make  it  known  once  more. 

Arc  saved  (xv.,  2)  ;  better,  "  are  being  saved,"  the  present 
tense  indicating  a  process  which  was  not  yet  complete.  This 
.  process  was  conditional  on  holding  fast  the  substance  of  the 
Gospel.  This  connection,  given  in  the  margin  by  the  Eng- 
lish revisers,  and  adopted  in  the  text  of  the  American  Ver- 
sion, furnishes  a  good  sequence  of  thought  ;  the  arrange- 
ment in  the  English  text  makes  no  very  coherent  sense. 

First  of  all  (xv.,  3)  ;  that  is,  among  the  first  and  most  promi- 
nent subjects  of  his  teaching  ;  not,  I  was  the  first  to  deliver. 
The  English  is  ambiguous. 

Died  for  onr  sins  according  to  the  Scriptures  (xv.,  3). — 
The  Greek  preposition  denotes  "on  behalf  of"  our  sins. 
The  Apostle  does  not  here  unfold  his  doctrine,  but  refers 


XV.,  4-8.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  121 

simply  to  the  historical  fact  that  Christ  died  in  his  effort  to 
vanquish  sin  :  in  this  supreme  instance,  as  in  so  many  minor 
instances,  the  innocent  suffered  for  the  guilty.  The  Scrip- 
ture alluded  to  is  probably  Isaiah  liii.,  which  is  expressly 
referred  to  in  Acts  viii.,  32  sq.,  i  Peter  ii.,  22  sqq. 

Raised  on  the  third  day  according  to  the  Scriptures  (xv.,  4). 
— The  reference  may  be  to  Psalm  xvi.,  10,  and  to  2  Kings 
XX.,  5,  Hosea  vi.,  2,  Jonah  i.,  17,  the  passages  being  ap- 
plied to  the  Messiah,  in  the  last  instance  through  a  sym- 
bolical interpretation. 

James  (xv.,  7)  ;  probably  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  not  one 
of  the  twelve.  I  think  there  is  no  implication  that  he  is 
included  in  "all  the  apostles."  But  in  any  case  the  word 
"apostles"  is  not  limited  by  Paul  to  the  twelve,  and  the 
separate  mention  of  the  twelve  here  suggests  a  wider  appli- 
cation. The  reference  to  "the  twelve"  in  v.  5,  instead  of 
eleven,  points  to  an  official  designation. 

One  born  otct  of  due  time  (or  the  child  untimely  born,  xv.,  8). 
— As  Paul's  vision  was  not  premature  as  compared  with  the 
others,  the  figure  does  not  seem  very  appropriate,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  term  was  one  of  reproach  on  the 
part  of  his  Jewish  adversaries.  But  such  an  allusion  is 
hardly  consistent  with  the  seriousness  of  the  passage  ;  and 
the  vision  was  really  premature  in  relation  to  Paul  himself, 
for  his  spiritual  eye  was  suddenly  opened  to  the  light  of  day 
before  he  had  been  fashioned  into  the  Christian  form  and 
prepared  for  this  birth  from  above. 

The  next  step  in  the  argument  shows  that  the  denial  of  a  resur- 
rection involves  the  denial  of  Christ's  resurrection,  and  the  conse- 
quent ruin  of  the  Christian  faith  (xv.  12-19). 

The  argument  throughout  this  passage  has  no  validity 
unless  Christ  be  regarded  as  in  the  strictest  sense  a  man  ;  for 
only  the  resurrection  of  a  man  could  disprove  the  universal 
proposition  that  no  dead  men  rise.     The  denial  of  a  resurrec- 


tion  might  be  associated  with  the  belief  in  a  spiritual  immor- 
tahty,  the  soul  escaping  from  the  body  into  the  upper  realms 
of  light  and  life  ;  and  this  form  of  belief  might  htive  com- 
mended itself  to  Greeks.  Btit  there  is  no  allusion  to  this, 
and  the  argument  seems  to  assume  throughout  that  the 
question  was  between  resurrection  and  annihilation,  or,  if 
not  annihilation,  at  least  that  shadowy  existence  in  Hades 
which  was  far  removed  from  the  life  and  immortality  of  the 
Christian's  hope. 

Your  faith  is  vain;  ye  are  yet  in  your  sins  (xv.,  17). — If 
Christ  be  simply  a  dead  man,  and  not  a  glorified  and  quicken- 
ing spirit,  the  Christian  conception  of  an  immortal  commun- 
ion of  sons  of  God  crumbles  to  pieces  ;  the  belief  that  we 
have  eternal  life  abiding  in  us  is  a  vain  dream,  and  we  drop 
back  into  the  ranks  of  sinful  and  perishing  men.  Then  all 
the  brethren  whose  dying  eyes  were  lighted  by  the  faith  of 
Christ  are  sleeping  to  wake  no  more.  We  are  the  most 
miserable  of  men,  wasting  the  only  life  that  is  ours  amid 
deceitful  hopes  and  mocking  ideals. 

In  opposition  to  the  foregoing  the  fact  of  Christ's  resurrection  is 
once  more  asserted ;  and  this  is  followed  by  a  passage  of  great 
sublimity,  which  carries  our  thoughts  to  the  final  issue  of  things 
(xv.,  20-28). 

The  first-fruits  (xv.,  20),  By  man  (2l). — These  words 
justify  and  emphasise  the  remark  made  under  the  last  head, 
that  Paul  regards  Christ  as  really  and  typically  human. 
The  first-fruits  must  be  of  the  same  kind  as  the  harvest,  for 
no  one  could  call  a  sheaf  of  wheat  the  first-fruits  of  a  crop  of 
thistles,  and  unless  Ckrist  was  regarded  as  man  in  the  same 
sense  as  Adam,  the  analogy  between  them  breaks  down. 
We  should  also  observe  how  simply  this  is  taken  for  granted, 
without  any  hint  of  a  different  view  or  of  possible  or  necessary 
qualifications.  Ample  qualifications  may  be  found  in  some 
commentators,  who  evidently  think  Paul's  language  very 
inadequate. 


XV.,  22-24.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  123 

Shall  all  be  viade  alive  (xv.,  22). — The  comparison  here 
would  clearly  fail  if  we  limited  the  meaning  of  "  all "  ;  and 
"made  alive"  can  hardly  refer  merely  to  the  resurrection 
without  its  attendant  blessedness.  We  may  compare  Rom. 
v.,  15-2 1 j  where  the  same  universalism  is  applied  to  the  re- 
demption from  sin,  and  it  is  maintained  that  the  Christ-nature 
in  us,  though  appearing  at  a  later  stage,  is  as  real  as  the  Adam- 
nature,  and  even  more  certain  than  the  latter  to  work  out  its 
imphcit  idea.  This  universalism  may  be  hard  to  reconcile 
with  some  of  Paul's  expressions,  which  bring  before  us  moral 
conditions  whereby  men  may  be  self-excluded  from  the 
blessedness  intended  for  them  ;  but  it  is  certainly  remarkable 
that  when  he  most  vividly  apprehends  the  Divine  power  and 
meaning  of  Christ's  spiritual  humanity,  he  sets  no  limits  to 
its  saving  eflBcac)'. 

Order  (xv.,  23). — The  word  does  not  mean  order  in  time, 
but  refers  to  the  division  or  class  in  which  a  man  is  included. 

Then  comeih  the  end  (xv.,  24). — Paul  does  not  enumerate  all 
the  divisions  of  men,  and  the  unbelievers  aud  the  wicked  are 
not  mentioned.  But  the  idea  seems  to  be  that  at  the  second 
advent  only  believers  will  rise,  and  then  Christ  will  reign  for 
an  indefinite  period,  carrying  on  the  war  against  evil  till  he 
is  completely  victorious.  Paul  avoids  the  rabbinical  specula- 
tions about  the  length  of  the  messianic  period,  and  says  noth- 
ing of  the  way  in  which  the  wicked  are  to  be  finally  delivered 
from  the  power  of  sin  ;  but  that  deliverance  certainly  seems 
contemplated  in  the  abolition  of  rule,  authority,  power,  words 
which  refer  to  the  sway  of  the  principles  of  evil.  Then  Christ 
will  deliver  up  the  Kingdom  to  God.  Spiritual  things  must 
be  spiritually  understood,  and  I  suppose  this  must  refer  to 
the  time  when  all  souls  will  have  been  brought  into  direct 
and  full  communion  with  God,  like  that  of  Christ  himself, 
and  they  will  no  longer  need  even  the  Beloved  to  awaken 
within  them  the  abiding  sense  of  the  Father's  love. 

He  must  reign  tintil  he  hath  put  all  his  enemies  under  his 


124  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         xv.,  25-28. 

feet  (xv.,  25). — This  is  borrowed  from  Psalm  ex.,  i,  to  which 
a  messianic  appHcation  was  given.  It  is  cited  to  estabHsh 
the  fact  that  the  powers  of  evil  will  be  subdued.  The  reign 
of  Christ  is  service  ;  and  the  self-sacrificing  ministrations  of 
love  cannot  cease  so  long  as  there  is  one  wanderer  to  be 
gathered  home  to  God. 

The  last  enemy  that  shall  be  abolished  is  death  (xv.,  26)  : 
more  correctly,  "as  the  last  enemy,  death  shall  be  abolished." 
This  is  confirmed,  in  the  next  verse,  by  an  appeal  to  Psalm 
viii.,  6.  The  statement  confirms  the  view  that  Paul  looked 
forward  to  the  total  abolition  of  evil. 

Then  shall  the  Son  also  himself  be  subjected  {y^v  .^2^) . — From 
any  point  of  view  this  is  rather  a  difficult  statement.  It  can 
hardly  be  meant  that  the  Son  was  not  subject,  but  occupied 
an  independent  position,  during  his  messianic  reign,  when 
Christians  called  hiin  Lord  ;  but  that  afterwards  he  was  made 
subject  to  the  will  of  God  in  a  way  in  which  he  was  not  sub- 
ject before.  I  think  the  meaning  must  be  that  he  will 
descend,  as  it  were,  into  the  rank  of  subjects  by  the  ele- 
vation of  all  to  the  same  spiritual  height.  Through  the 
inworking  of  his  spirit  all  will  have  come  to  the  measure  of 
the  stature  of  the  fulness  of  Christ ;  he  will  be  the  first-born 
of  a  universal  brotherhood  ;  and  God  will  be  in  all  even  as 
in  him. 

Some  further  considerations  are  now  adduced  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  resurrection  (xv.,  29-34). 

The  main  thought  of  the  passage  is  that  the  denial  of  the 
resurrection  must  have  disastrous  moral  results.  It  thus 
resumes  the  line  of  thought  which  was  traced  in  v.  19.  In 
opposition  to  that,  Paul  described  his  glorious  vision  of  the 
future.  If  these  vaticinations  of  the  inspired  conscience 
were  but  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  dream,  the  truth  of  the 
moral  nature  would  be  shattered,  and  amid  its  ruins  the 
doctrine  of  animal  enjoyment  would  emerge. 


XV.,  29-33-  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  125 

Baptised  for  the  dead  (xv.,  29).  — This  verse  has  received 
various  explanations,  but  that  which  is  most  generally  ap- 
proved takes  it  as  a  reference  to  the  practice  of  vicarious 
baptism  on  behalf  of  believers  who  had  died  unbaptised.  Of 
this  practice  the  traces  are  very  obscure,  and  the  explanation 
is  by  no  means  without  difficulties.  The  verse  has  no  intel- 
ligible place  in  the  argument  ;  for  it  neither  proves  the 
resurrection  nor  points  to  any  evil  results  from  disbelieving  it. 

I  die  daily  (xv.,  31)  ;  a  strong  way  of  saying,  my  life  is  in 
continual  danger.  The  narrative  in  Acts  reports  a  final,  but 
not  a  dail_\'  danger  at  Ephesus. 

If  after  tlie  inayiner  of  men  (xv.,  32). — The  context  fixes  the 
meaning, — like  a  mere  perishing  man,  for  whom  there  is  no 
resurrection.  What  is  the  good  of  \\\y  engaging  in  deadly 
strife  for  a  future  which  has  no  existence  ? 

I  fought  zvith  beasts  at  Ephesus  (xv.,  32). — This  clearly  refers 
to  some  event  which  took  place  at  Ephesus  ;  but  it  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  the  expression  is  figurative,  for  Paul,  as 
a  Roman  citizen,  would  not  have  been  set  to  fight  in  the 
arena,  and,  if  he  had,  it  is  very  improbable  that  he  w^ould 
have  escaped  with  his  life.  The  figure,  however,  is  harsh. 
Paul  did  not  always  receive  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen, 
and  the  beasts  at  the  public  shows  did  not  always  kill  those 
who  were  exposed  to  them.' 

Let  us  eat  aud  driu/cfor  to-uwrroic  we  die  (xv.,  32). — This  is 
quoted  from  Isaiah  xxii.,  13.  The  application  is  Paul's 
own. 

Evil  eompany  doth  corrupt  good  manners,  or  Evil  com- 
panionships corrupt  good  morals  (xv.,  2>^- — This  is  cited  from 
Menander's  pla}-,  Thais;  but  the  line  maj^  have  become 
proverbial,  and  is  hardly  sufficient  to  prove  Paul's  acquaint- 
ance with  the  poet.  The  warning  is  directed  against  the 
influence  of  the  "  some  "  who  denied  the  lesurrection,  men- 
tioned in  z'.  12. 

'  See  Ramsay,  Chitrch  in  the  Roman  Empire,  pp.  312,  404. 


126  FIRST  CORINTHIANS         xv.,  34-44.  . 

Some  have  no  knowledge  of  God  (xv.,  34). — This  points  to  a 
deeper  source  of  doubt  than  mere  intellectual  difficulties. 
The  Christian's  faith  in  God  carries  with  it  the  assurance  of 
eternal  life  ;  for  God  will  not  hand  over  to  destruction  the 
children  of  His  love. 

Having  now  established  his  doctrine  of  resurrection,  Paul  pro- 
ceeds to  remove  the  chief  difficulty  w^hich  w^as  felt  in  regard  to  it 
(XV.,  35-49). 

It  was  clear  to  the  Greek  mind  that  the  body  which 
was  resolved  into  its  elements  in  the  grave  could  not  rise 
again,  and  it  was  known  that  Paul  himself  did  not  believe 
that  it  could.  How,  then,  could  the  bodily  identity  be  pre- 
served ? 

The  difficulty  is  met  by  bringing  forward  a  number  of 
analogies,  of  which  the  principal  is  that  of  the  grain  of  wheat. 
This  of  course  does  not  really  die  ;  but  it  is  buried  in  the 
ground,  and  so  changed  that  it  may  be  said  to  die  as  a  seed, 
and  that  which  rises  above  the  ground,  though  retaining  the 
same  organic  life,  is  completel}^  different  in  form.  The 
other  illustrations  seem  intended  to  show  that  there  are  in 
fact  various  sorts  of  bodies,  and  different  degrees  even  in 
bodies  of  the  same  class.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  Paul 
believed  that  the  natural  body  as  a  whole  would  be  changed 
into  the  spiritual  body,  or  that  the  latter  would  be  evolved 
out  of  an  indestructible  germ  in  the  former.  The  latter  view 
was  entertained  among  the  Jews,  and,  I  think,  suits  best  the 
tenor  of  the  chapter.  In  this  case  the  body  of  flesh  and 
blood  would  yield  to  the  corruption  of  the  grave  and  dis- 
appear, and  the  incorruptible  body  would  rise,  like  the  stalk 
of  wheat,  out  of  the  buried  germ. 

//  is  sown  i7i  corruption  (xv.,  42). — "  It  "  means  the  boch', 
as  is  shown  by  v.  44.  "Sown"  is  proved  b}'  the  whole 
context  to  refer  to  burial. 

Natural  body  .    .    .    spirilnal  dody  {kv.,  /[/\.). — "Natural," 


XV.,  45-47.         FIRST  CORINTHIANS  127 

that  is,  psychical,  a  body  suited  to  and  governed  by  the 
animal  principle  of  life.  On  account  of  the  parallelism  we 
must  similarly  understand  the  spiritual  body  to  be,  not  one 
composed  of  spiritual  substance,  but  one  suited  to  and  con- 
trolled by  the  spirit. 

Itis written  (xv.,  45),  iu  Gen.  ii.,  7,  "  first  "  and  "  Adam  " 
being  added  to  make  the  application  clear.  Adam  and 
Christ  are  the  progenitors  of  the  psychical  and  the  spiritual 
nature  ;  and  for  this  reason  Christ  is  spoken  of  as  the  last 
Adam  because  he  started  that  spiritual  life  which  is  the  cul- 
mination of  humanity.  In  saying  that  he  became  a  life- 
giving  spirit  I  think  Paul  means  to  describe  his  essential 
nature,  not  that  he  became  so  at  any  particular  epoch  ; 
otherwise  the  parallelism  with  the  previous  clause  would  be 
lost.  He  was  the  originator  of  spiritual  humanity,  and  this 
spiritual  humanity  must  be  reah.sed  in  an  organism  which  is 
suited  to  it.  According  to  a  rabbinical  saying,  Adam  was 
wiser  than  all  men,  and  was  the  light  of  the  world.'  From 
this  view  Paul  markedly  dissents. 

That  is  not  first  which  is  spiritual  (xv.,  46)  either  in  history 
or  in  the  individual.  Here  and  elsewhere  in  Paul  we  have  a 
very  noticeable  doctrine  of  growth  or  development. 

The  second  man  is  of  heaven  (xv.,  47). — I  think  this  docs 
not  describe  the  place  out  of  which  Jesus  descended  to  the 
earth,  but  refers  to  the  higher  quality  of  his  being,  and  that 
therefore  it  has  no  bearing  on  the  question  of  pre-existence. 
This  is  shown  by  the  parallelism  with  other  men, — "  As  is 
the  heavenly,  such  are  they  also  that  are  heavenly."  Those 
that  share  in  the  spirit  of  Christ  shall  share  also  in  his  resur- 
rection, and  through  death  cast  off  the  image  of  the  earthy, 
and  assume  the  image  which  manifests  their  more  exalted 
life.  In  a  somewhat  similar  way  Philo  distinguishes  men  of 
earth,  who  are  devoted  to  bodily  pleasures  ;  men  of  heaven, 
who  follow  reason,  the  heavenly  principle  within  us;  and  men 
'  Weber,  Jiidische  Thcologie,  p.  214. 


128  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  xv.,  50-55. 

of  God,  who  are  priests  and  prophets,  and  have  their  citizen- 
ship amid  incorruptible  and  incorporeal  ideas.' 

The  chapter  concludes  by  pointing  out  that  even  those  who  have 
not  died  before  the  day  of  resurrection  must  be  changed,  and  then 
at  last  death  will  be  completely  overthrown  (xv.,  50-58). 

Flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit  the  Kingdom  of  God  (xv.,  50). 
— The  Kingdom  of  God  is  evidently  used  here,  not  of  the  in- 
ward reign  of  God  in  the  heart,  but  of  its  perfected  result  in 
a  society  of  immortals  over  whom  God  is  king.  This  King- 
dom was  closed  against  flesh  and  blood.  Although  the  state- 
ment is  made  in  order  to  show  the  necessity  for  a  change  in 
those  who  do  not  pass  through  death,  it  at  the  same  time 
makes  it  quite  clear  that  in  Paul's  view  the  resurrection-body 
was  not  to  be  one  of  flesh  and  blood. 

A  mystery  (xv.,  51) ;  a  thing  which  they  did  not  know,  but 
was  now  revealed.  The  use  of  the  first  person  in  explain- 
ing the  mystery  points  to  the  belief  that  Christ  would  return 
before  the  end  of  the  existing  generation  :  not  all  who  were 
then  living  would  die,  but  all  would  be  changed,  whether 
through  the  alchemy  of  the  grave  or  at  the  sudden  blast  of 
the  trumpet. 

We  shall  be  changed  (xv.,  52). — "We"  is  emphatic  in 
Greek,  and  indicates  Paul's  expectation  that  he  himself 
would  be  among  the  survivors. 

Written  (xv.,  54). — The  quotation  is  from  Isaiah  xxv. ,  8, 
and  the  questions  in  the  following  verse  are  taken  freely  from 
Hosea  xiii.,  14.  In  Jewish  opinion  death  would  cease  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah.'^ 

Thy  sting  (xv,,  55). — With  this  translation  the  figure  is 

^  De  Gigant.y  §  13.  Compare  his  expression,  Knra/JaJaTr'  ovpavov, 
said  of  the  vovi  when  it  leaves  the  pure  service  oi  God.{Quis  ser.  div. 
her.,  W  16  and  55).  So  Origen  describes  the  moral  ascent  towards 
God  as  HarooOsv  dva^ai'vovra  (Coin,  in  Joan.,  tom.  I.  29,  p.  61, 
Lorn.). 

^  Weber,  JMische  Theologie,  p.  249. 


xv.,56-xvi.,4.     FIRST  CORINTHIANS  129 

borrowed  from  an  animal  such  as  a  scorpion.  The  word 
may  also  mean  a  goad  with  which  a  beast  is  driven. 

The  sting  of  death  is  sin  ;  and  the  power  of  sin  is  the  law 
(x».,  56). — This  verse  receives  its  fullest  explanation  in  Rom. 
vii.,  7  sqg.  The  thought,  however  true,  does  not  seem  very 
appropriate  to  the  subject  of  the  chapter,  and  is  not  indeed 
suggested  by  anything  in  this  Epistle.  The  conjecture  has 
been  made  that  it  may  have  been  a  marginal  note,  and  in- 
serted by  mistake  in  the  text. 

My  beloved  brethreyi  (xv.,  58).— The  bigot  seeks  to  destroy 
error  by  threatenings  and  slaughter  ;  the  Christian  is  only 
moved  to  a  deeper  love  by  men's  failure  to  see  the  light  that 
shines  so  brightly  on  himself.  When  Paul's  indignation  is 
strongly  moved  against  doctrinal  error,  as  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians,  it  is  against  error  that  made  men  narrow,  ex- 
clusive, and  arrogant.  With  the  consolation  and  encourage- 
ment of  this  verse  the  various  subjects  of  discussion  are 
brought  to  a  close.  But  the  mention  of  the  "work  of  the 
Lord  ' '  fitly  prepares  the  way  for  the  practical  exhortation 
which  follows. 

One  other  topic  remains,  which,  from  the  manner  of  its  introduc- 
tion, seems  to  have  been  included  among  the  queries  of  the 
Corinthians,— a  collection  for  the  saints  in  Jerusalem  (xvi.,  1-4), 

"The  saints,"  without  any  addition,  cannot  denote  the 
poor  in  Jerusalem,  so  that  the  reference  must  be  to  some- 
thing already  known  ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  article, 
"  the  collection." 

Approve  by  letters  (xvi,,  3). — This  must  mean,  "recom- 
mend by  letters,"  a  meaning  which  the  Greek,  I  think, 
cannot  bear.  The  Corinthians  were  to  select  men  that  they 
approved  of,  and  Paul  would  recommend  them  in  Jerusalem 
by  a  letter  from  himself, — unless  indeed  he  went  himself. 
Therefore  adopt  the  marginal  translation. 

They  shall  go  with  me  (xvi.,  4). — It  is  said  that  it  would 
have  been  contrary  to  Apostolic  dignity  to  say,  "I  will  go 


130  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  xvi.,  9-19 

with  them."  I  think  this  mistakes  the  meaning,  which  is, 
in  effect,  "  I  will  not  go  alone,  but  your  own  approved  repre- 
sentatives shall  accompany  me,  and  see  that  everything  is 
properly  done." 

These  directions  lead  the  Apostle  to  speak  of  the  expected  time 
of  his  visit,  and  the  rest  of  the  Epistle  is  occupied  with  personal 
references  and  salutations  (xvi.,  5-24). 

In  regard  to  Paul's  movements  and  intentions  see  the 
Introduction. 

A  great  door  and  effectual  (xvi.,  9). — The  last  word  is 
hardly  applicable  to  the  figure  of  the  door  ;  but  the  meaning 
must  be  that  the  door  is  wide  enough  to  admit  of  effective 
work.  The  presence  of  many  adversaries  furnished  an  ad- 
ditional reason  for  devoting  all  his  strength  to  the  task. 

If  Timothy  come  (xvi.,  lo). — As  Timothy  had  been  sent  on 
a  special  mission  to  Corinth,  the  doubt  probably  relates  only 
to  the  time  of  his  arrival. 

Despise  him  (xvi.,  II). — The  exhortation  was  perhaps  ren- 
dered desirable  by  his  youth  :  compare  i  Tim.  iv.,  12.  Pos- 
sibly also  his  gentleness  concealed  his  real  strength. 

With  the  breth7-en  (xvi.,  Il)  :  probably  those  who  had  been 
sent  with  him,  though  only  Erastus  is  named  in  Acts  xix., 
22  ;  perhaps  brethren  expected  from  Corinth. 

As  touchifig  Apollos  (xvi.,  12). — The  mode  of  reference 
suggests  that  the  Corinthians  had  asked  for  a  visit.  The 
"brethren"  are  probably  those  who  were  to  carry  Paul's 
letter. 

For  the  visit  of  Stephanas  and  his  friends  see  the  Introduc- 
tion. They  supplied  what  was  lacking  on  the  part  of  the 
Corinthians  [v.  17)  by  their  own  cordiality  ;  and  by  bringing 
about  a  better  state  of  feeling  in  Corinth  they  refreshed  not 
only  Paul's  spirit,  but  that  of  the  Corinthians. 

Aquila  and  Prisca  (xvi.,  19). — Paul  had  left  them  at  Ephe- 
sus  on  his  journey  from  Greece  to  Palestine  (Acts  xviii.,  18, 
19).     They  were  probably  possessed  of  some  wealth,  and  so 


xvi,  22  24.  FIRST  CORINTHIANS  131 

were  able  to  provide  a  large  room  in  their  house  for  the 
meetings  of  a  congregation. 
_,^Anathema  (xvi.  22)  ;  a  thing  devoted  to  destruction.  It  is 
not  very  apparent  why  this  imprecation  is  introduced  ;  but 
in  view  of  the  many  abuses  which  he  has  had  to  notice 
in  the  Epistle,  Paul  may  wish  to  remind  his  readers  of  the 
one  qualification  of  the  Christian  which  carried  all  else  with 
it,  and  without  which  Christianity  was  a  pretence.  The 
following  words  are  Aramaic,  and,  we  must  suppose,  were 
for  some  reason  understood  by  the  readers,  like  omai,  and 
Abba.  It  may  have  been  a  current  phrase  of  exhortation  and 
warning.' 

My  love  be  with  you  a//(xvi  ,  24).— He  had  been  obliged  to 
use  words  of  reproof ;  but  there  were  no  exceptions  to  his 
love  and  regard.  In  the  more  highly  wrought  feeling  of  the 
Second  Epistle  he  substitutes  for  this  "the  love  of  God." 
In  Christ  Jesus  all  estrangements  die  away  ;  his  follow^ers 
are  bound  to  one  another  in  nuitual  affection  ;  and  the  love 
of  God  is  supreme  over  all. 

'  Dr.  Neubauer  says  the  words,  as  they  stand,  certainly  mean  "  Our 
Lord  has  come."  He  refers  to  a  conjecture  of  M.  Halevy  that  the 
words  may  be  differently  divided,  and  signify,  "Our  Lord,  come," 
corresponding  with  the  invocation  in  Rev.  xxii.  20.  (vSee  his  article 
on  "The  Dialects  of  Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ,"  in  Studia 
Biblica,  I.  i)p.  57,  73.) 


SECOND   CORINTHIANS. 


ANALYSIS. 
Address  and  greeting,  i.,  i,  2. 
I.    Defensive  expression  of  thoughts  and  feei^ings  which 

AROSE  OUT  OF  INCIDENTS  SUBSEQUENT  TO  THE  SENDING 

OF  THE  First  Epistle,  i.,  3-vii.,  16. 

1.  Thanksgiving  for  deliverance  from  danger,  i.,  3-11. 

2.  Reference  to  circumstances  connected  with  an  unrecorded 

visit  and  a  lost  letter,  i.,  12-ii.,  17. 

a.  Defence  against  the  charge  of  insincerity  in  his  writing  or 

conduct,  i.,  12-ii.,  4. 
(r)  General  assertion  of  his  conscientious  action,  i.,  12-14. 

(2)  His  change  of  purpose  in  regard  to  his  visit  was  not 

due  to  fickleness,  i,,  15-22. 

(3)  The  reason  for  his  change,  i.,  23-ii.,  4. 

b.  Advice  to  forgive  a  man  who  had  offended,  ii.,  5-1  r. 

c.  His  anxiety  for  news   from   Corinth,  and  his  relief  on 

learning  its  happy  character,  ii.,  12-17. 
3.  Defensive  description  of  his  Apostolic  office,  iii.,  i-vi.,  10. 

a.  He  has  no  need  to  commend  himself,  iii.,  1-3. 

b.  His  confidence  was  not  in  himself,  but  directed  towards 

God,  who  made  him  a  minister  of  a  new  and  glorious 
covenant,  iii.,  4-1 1. 

c.  Contrast   between  Jewish   and    Christian    teaching   and 

learning,  iii.,  12-18. 

d.  Openness  and  sincerity  of  his  preaching,  iv.,  1-6. 

e.  The  preachers  of  the  Gospel  are  weak 'and'  persecuted, 

but  are  supported  by  a  conquering  faith,  which  looks 
to  the  eternal  world,  iv.,  7-^v.,  10. 

f.  This  makes  them  eager  to  preach  the  Gospel  of  recon- 

ciliation, v.,  ii-vi.,  10. 
4.  The  Corinthians  should  open  their  hearts  to  the  Apostle, 
and  not  allow  themselves  to  be  misled  by  unbelievers' 
vi.,  ii-vii.,4.  ' 

133 


134  SECOND  CORINTHIANS 

5.  His  comfort  on  receiving  news  from  Titus,  vii.,  5-16. 
II.    Directions  about  the  coi,i,ection  for  the  poor  Christ- 
ians in  Jerusalem,  viii.,  i-ix.,  15. 

1.  Appeal  to  the  example  of  Macedonia,  viii.,  1-6. 

2.  Exhortation  to  contribute  according  to  their  means,  viii., 

7-15- 

3.  Recommendation  of  Titus  and  two  other  brethren  sent  to 

complete  the  collection,  viii.,  16-24. 

4.  The  collection  to  be  completed  before  his  own  arrival,  ix., 

1-5- 

5.  Give  ungrudgingly,  for  men  reap  as  they  sow,  and  such  a 

ministration  produces  thanksgiving  and  brotherly  love, 
ix.,  6-15. 

III.    Defence  of  himseiyF  against  his  opponents,  and  threats 

AGAINST  THE  impenitent,  X.,  i-xiii. ,  10. 

1.  His  defence,  x.,  i-xii.,  18. 

a.  Pleading  that  he  may  not  have  to  be  severe  when  he 

comes,  X.,  1-6. 

b.  He  is  determined  to  maintain  his  authority  by  an  appeal 

to  plain  facts,  x.,  7-11. 

c.  His   glorying   is  only   in   what  he  has  himself  accom- 

plished, not  in  othermen's  labours,  x.,  12-18. 

d.  The  glorying  itself,  xi.,  i-xii.,  18. 

(i)  Introduction,  excusing  his  folly  in  boasting  through 
his  zeal  for  them,  xi.,  1-3. 

(2)  He  has  as  full  knowledge  of  the   Gospel   as   others, 

xi.,  4-6. 

(3)  He  taught  the  Gospel  to  the  Corinthians  gratis,  xi., 

7-15. 

(4)  Further  excuses  for  his  boasting,  xi.,  16-21. 

(5)  His  pure  lineage,    his  deeds  and  sufferings  for  the 

Gospel,  and  his  visions,  xi.,  22-xii.,  10. 

(6)  He  had  shown  all  the  signs  of  an  Apostle  among  them, 

and  had  taken  no  advantage  of  them,  xii.,  11-18. 

2.  Real  reason  for  his  defence,  that  he  might  edify  his  readers, 

and  not  have  to  deal  sharply  with  them  when  he  came, 
as  the  impenitent  would  find  that  he  would  do,  xii., 
19-xiii.,  10. 

Concluding  exhortation,    salutations,    and   bene- 
diction, xiii.,  11-14. 


SECOND  CORINTHIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

The  Epistle  begins,  as  usual,  with  an  address  and  greeting 
(i.,  I,  2). 

Timothy  here  takes  the  place  of  Sosthenes,  whom  Paul 
couples  with  himself  iti  the  First  Epistle  ;  aud  the  salutation, 
instead  of  being  extended  to  all  Christians,  is  limited  to 
those  "in  the  whole  of  Achaia,"  that  is,  in  the  Roman 
province,  which  included  Hellas  and  Peloponnesus. 

After  the  greeting  Paul  enters  immediately  on  the  first  portion 
of  the  Epistle,  in  which  he  pours  forth  thoughts  and  feelings 
which  were  suggested  by  occurrences  that  had  taken  place  sub- 
sequently to  the  date  of  the  First  Epistle  (i.,  3-vii.,  16). 

There  is  a  sorrowful  and  defensive  tone  running  through 
these  chapters,  and  the  order  of  the  thoughts  is  determined 
by  the  suggestions  of  feeling  as  much  as  by  their  logical 
connection.  In  their  course  Paul  rises  to  some  of  his  loftiest 
teaching. 

He  begins  with  a  thanksgiving  for  his  deliverance  from  some 
great  suffering  and  danger,  and  reflections  on  the  purpose  of  these 
(i.,  3-")- 

It  is  very  uncertain  what  Paul  alludes  to.  The  Corinthi- 
ans evidently  were  acquainted  with  the  facts,  though  they 
were  not  aware  how  terribly  they  had  tried  the  Apostle  (see 
V.  8).  Commentators  have  naturally  thought  of  the  riot  at 
Ephesus.     The  expression  "  so  great  a  death  "  seems  most 

135 


136  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  i.,  3-11. 

suitable  to  a  tragic  situation,  and  we  must  not  underestimate 
the  horror  of  being  hunted  for  one's  life  by  a  savage  mob. 
It  does  not,  however,  appear  from  the  account  in  Acts  that 
Paul's  life  was  in  actual  danger,  although  he  may  have 
thought  it  prudent  to  hasten  his  departure  from  the  city  ;  and 
the  references  to  sufferings  and  the  Divine  comfort  which 
alleviated  them  point  to  something  more  than  the  anxiety 
of  two  or  three  hours.  We  must  be  content,  therefore,  to 
leave  the  occasion  in  uncertainty,  but  I  think  the  expressions 
in  the  passage  ("  the  sufferings  of  Christ,"  "  enduring  of  the 
same  sufferings, "  "ye  are  partakers  of  the  sufferings") 
indicate  peril  and  injury  from  enemies  rather  than  "  a  deadly 
sick?iess  ' '  ( Al ford ) . 

We  must  observe  the  use  which  Paul  makes  of  his  sad 
experiences.  They  were  intended,  he  thought,  to  enlarge 
and  deepen  his  sympathies,  so  that  he  might  pass  on  to 
others  a  Divine  gift  which  he  could  have  received  in  no 
other  way.  The  soul  that  has  had  no  sorrow  cannot  minister 
to  the  sorrowful. 

The  Father  of  mercies  (i.,  3)  :  that  is,  He  who  is  the  source 
and  author  of  merciful  acts. 

Us  ...  we  (i.,  4). — This  passage  is  so  full  of  personal 
feeling  that  the  plural  probably  refers  only  to  Paul,  though 
of  course  it  is  not  impossible  that  Timothy  may  have  been  in- 
volved in  the  same  dangers,  and  experienced  the  same  relief. 

The  answer  of  death  (i.,  9). — "  Death  "  was  the  answer  to 
the  question  whether  we  were  to  expect  life  or  death. 

By  vieans  of  via^iy  (i.,  ii),  through  the  intercession  of 
many. 

It  has  been  questioned  whether  Paul  introduced  this  para- 
graph with  a  distinct  purpose.  It  is  no  doubt  admirably 
adapted  to  conciliate  the  good  feeling  of  his  readers,  and  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  defence  which  follows  ;  but  it  is  so, 
precisely  because  it  is  such  a  genuine  outpouring  of  the 
heart's  emotion,  and  if  we  could  imagine  it  artfully  inserted 


i.,  12-15.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  137 

for  a  definite  end  in  relation  to  himself,  its  beauty  and  pathos 
would  be  destroyed.  If  there  is  purpose,  it  is  only  such  a 
purpose  as  springs  up  spontaneously  in  a  sympathetic  mind 
to  meet  a  particular  situation.  The  need  of  defence  called 
up  the  thought  of  all  he  had  suffered  on  behalf  of  Christ, 
and  a  yearning  love  towards  the  disciples  from  whom  he 
could  not  bear  to  be  alienated. 

The  ground  being  thus  prepared,  he  enters  on  a  defence  of  him- 
self against  a  charge  of  fickleness  or  even  insincerity  because  he 
had  changed  the  plans  which  in  some  way  he  had  announced  to 
the  Corinthians  (i.,  12-ii.,  4). 

For  the  probable  course  of  the  events  which  are  here 
alluded  to  see  the  Introduction. 

He  first  makes  a  general  assertion  of  his  conscientious 
action  (i.,  12-14).  This  is  introduced  as  a  reason  ("  for  ") 
why  he  was  entitled  to  their  prayers  on  his  behalf.  He  was 
animated  by  the  sincerity  which  is  of  God,  and  not  by  the 
wisdom  w^hicli  plots  for  selfish  ends,  and  he  had  enjoyed  more 
abundant  opportunity  of  manifesting  this  to  the  Corinthians 
than  to  others.  He  had  no  double  meaning  in  what  he 
wrote  ;  he  meant  exactly  what  they  read  in  his  letters  and 
what  they  recognised,  and  he  hoped  they  would  continue  to 
recognise,  in  his  conduct.  No  doubt  there  were  those  in 
Corinth  who  misunderstood  him  ;  but  to  a  certain  extent 
they  had  recognised  the  mutual  bond  by  which  they  would 
be  united  when  Christ  appeared. 

From  this  general  statement  he  proceeds  to  the  particular 
charge  :  it  was  not  through  fickleness  he  had  failed  to  carry 
out  his  plan  of  paying  them  two  visits  (i.,  15-22). 

In  this  conjideyice  (i.,  15)  in  our  mutual  understanding  and 
glorying.  It  is  implied  that  something  had  afterwards 
occurred  to  impair  his  confidence.  He  learned  that  the 
acknowledgment  was  only  "in  part"  {y.  14).  He  had 
intended  to  visit  them  "  before  "  going  into  Macedonia,  and 
then  to  give  them  ' '  a  second  benefit ' '  on  his  return  from 


138  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  i.,  17-21. 

Macedonia,  before  proceeding  to  Judaea.  There  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  actual  number  of  visits  which  Paul  had  yet  paid, 
but  only  to  the  number  which  he  intended  to  pay  on  this 
particular  journey. 

Fickleness?  ,  .  .  according  to  the  fie  sh(^\.^Vf). — There  is  a 
heightening  of  the  charge.  He  was  fickle,  not  knowing  his 
own  mind  ;  or,  worse  still,  he  had  unworthy  ends,  and  was 
deliberately  saying  yes  and  no  at  the  same  time.  The  repe- 
tition of  the  words,  "  yea,  yea,"  and  "  nay,  nay,"  implies  a 
stronger  asseveration,  and  therefore  greater  culpability. 

Our  word  toward  you  (i.,  18). — This  naturally  refers  in  the 
first  instance  to  the  expressed  intention  which  had  been  al- 
tered ;  but  it  immediately  receives  a  wider  application,  and 
furnishes  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  Apostle's  truthful- 
ness. His  whole  preaching  related  to  him  who  is  the  Truth, 
and  in  whom  all  the  promises  of  God  had  received  their 
solemn  afiirmation.  He  as  well  as  they  had  been  established 
in  Christ,  and  received  the  earnest  of  the  Spirit  ;  and  there- 
fore the  use  of  falsehood  would  be  altogether  inconsistent 
with  his  character. 

The  Son  of  God,  Jesus  Christ  (i.,  19). — The  Greek  throws 
the  emphasis  on  "God,"  thus  carrying  the  thought  up,  as 
\nv.  21,  to  the  supreme  source  of  truth.  As  God  is  true,  so 
must  be  His  Son ;  so  too  must  be  the  disciples  of  His  Son, 
who  share  his  Spirit. 

We  should  observe  how  Paul  is  careful  here  to  include  Sil- 
vanus  and  Timothy  with  himself  as  founders  of  the  Corinth- 
ian church. 

The  amen  (i.,  20)  ;  either  the  absolute  afi&rmation,  which 
would  make  it  simply  a  strengthened  repetition  of  "  the 
yea,"  or  the  solemn  affirmation  and  assent  of  the  Church. 

Anointed  us  (i.,  2l). — In  order  to  preserve  the  connection 
of  the  words  we  must  translate  the  name  Christ,  which 
means  "the  anointed."  Compare  i  John  ii.,  20,  "  Ye  have 
an  anointing  from  the  Holy  One"  ;   and  Theophilus  {Ad 


i.,  22-ii.,  I.       SECOND  CORINTHIANS  139 

Autolyciun,  i.,  12),  "  For  this  reason  we  are  called  Christians, 
because  we  are  anointed  with  the  oil  of  God." 

Sealed  21s  (i.,  22),  a  figure  derived  from  attesting,  and  so 
authenticating,  a  document.  "  The  earnest  "  is  money  paid 
down  at  the  time  of  a  transaction  as  a  pledge  of  the  future 
payment  of  the  whole  sum.  The  Spirit  in  the  heart  is  the 
pledge  of  all  that  we  are  to  be. 

Having  repelled  the  charge  of  fickleness,  he  states  the 
true  reason  for  his  change  of  plan  :  it  was  that  he  might  not 
pay  a  visit  which  would  only  give  pain  (i.,  23-ii.,  4). 

I  call  you  for  a  zvitncss  zipon  [or  against]  viy  soul  (i.,  23). 
— Such  a  strong  asseveration  seems  hardly  consistent  with  the 
simplicity  of  Christian  speech  (see  Matt,  v.,  33-37)  ;  but  it 
is  after  the  manner  of  Paul,  and  may  be  explained  by  the 
vehemence  of  his  feelings  and  his  painful  knowledge  that 
there  were  some  who  did  not  trust  him. 

Not  that  we  have  lordship  over  your  faith  (i.,  24). — These 
words  correct  an  impression  which  the  previous  statement 
might  produce.  Their  faith,  with  its  various  tendencies,  was 
their  own,  and  he  claimed  no  despotic  power  over  it ;  rather 
was  it  his  to  help  their  joy  in  believing,  and  his  censures 
were  directed  against  moral  evils  which  were  inconsistent 
with  the  faith  that  they  professed. 

I  would  not  come  again  to  you  with  sorroiv  (ii.,  l),  feeling 
and  communicating  grief.  "Again"  does  not,  I  think, 
grammatically  necessitate  the  supposition  of  a  previous  visit 
in  sorrow  ;  but  this  is  implied  in  the  whole  context,  when  in- 
terpreted by  other  references  to  an  unrecorded  visit  (see  the 
Introduction).  It  would  seem  that  Paul  paid  a  visit  to 
Corinth  which  filled  him  wntli  anxiety  and  distress,  and  in 
which  apparently  someone  had  even  insulted  him.  He  then 
wrote  a  lost  letter  of  remonstrance,  which,  with  the  great 
majority  of  the  church,  had  the  desired  effect  (see  vii.,  8-13). 
This  letter  is  alluded  to  in  the  present  passage,  according  to 
the  most  probable  interpretation. 


I40  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  3. 

/  wrote  this  very  thing  (ii.,  3),  referring  probably  to  the 
first  verse,  and  therefore  meaning  that  he  wrote  announc- 
ing his  change  of  plan.  His  reason  for  doing  so  was  that  a 
better  state  of  feeling  might  be  restored  before  he  again  ap- 
peared among  them  in  person.  It  had  given  him  the  deepest 
pain  to  write  this  letter  ;  but  his  object  in  writing  was  not  to 
grieve  them,  but  to  win  them  back  by  an  expression  of  his 
love.  We  may  suppose  that  it  was  too  personal,  and  too 
closely  connected  with  a  passing  state  of  things,  to  be  suit- 
able for  permanent  use  in  the  Church.  Hence  we  have  lost 
a  letter  which  would  have  thrown  a  most  valuable  light  on 
the  Apostle's  character  and  methods. 

The  reference  to  a  sorrowful  visit  reminds  Paul  of  one  who  had 
given  special  cause  for  sorrow,  and  whom  he  now  forgives  (ii,,  5-1 1). 

It  has  been  very  frequently,  but  by  no  means  universally, 
assumed  that  the  offender  in  this  passage,  which  must  be 
read  in  connection  with  vii.,  8-13,  is  the  incestuous  man  of 
the  First  Epistle.  I  agree  with  those  who  think  that  the 
allusion  is  to  someone  who  insulted  Paul  during  the  painful 
visit  to  which  he  has  referred.  For,  in  the  first  place,  this  is 
more  agreeable  to  the  context,  in  which  Paul  is  speaking  of 
an  unrecorded  visit  and  a  lost  letter.  To  fly  back  to  an 
event  which  happened  before  the  First  Epistle  was  written 
would  only  disturb  the  train  of  thought.  Secondl}^,  Paul 
could  not  say  he  had  written  about  such  a  case  simply  to 
prove  the  obedience  and  "  earnest  care  "  of  the  church  {v.  9, 
vii.,  12).  Thirdly,  if  the  incestuous  man  be  referred  to,  the 
church  was  not  obedient ;  for  this  offender,  instead  of  being 
solemnly  excommunicated  by  the  assembled  church,  was 
only  punished  "  by  the  majority  "  {y.  6),  apparently  without 
any  concerted  action.  Fourthly,  it  seems  to  me  impossible 
that  Paul  could  treat  an  odious  sin  in  this  rather  easy  way. 
He  would  surely  have  dwelt  on  its  moral  gravity,  and  have 
intimated  the  need  of  Divine  forgiveness,  and  have  assured 


ii.,  5-1 1.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  141 

himself  that  the  man  had  repented,  but  of  this  there  is  no 
evidence.  And,  lastly,  he  treats  the  whole  incident  as  a  per- 
sonal affair.  Evidently  he  is  the  one  who  is  supposed  to  be 
aggrieved  (z'.  5),  and  who  has  to  forgive  {y.  10)  ;  and,  while 
his  saying  that  it  grieved  some  of  his  friends,  but  not  him- 
self, is  very  noble  in  regard  to  a  personal  affront,  it  would  be 
anything  but  creditable  in  regard  to  a  sin  by  which  he  and 
his  friends  were  not  personally  injured.  He  "that  suffered 
the  wrong,"  of  vii.,  12,  is  most  naturally  explained  by  the 
"  me  "  of  z'.  5.  If  the  reference  is  to  the  case  of  incest,  the 
injured  man  must  be  the  father,  for  whom  Paul  might  have 
had  a  little  consideration,  or  at  all  events  might  have  re- 
frained from  boasting  that  he  had  none.  But  the  father  can 
hardly  be  intended,  for  he  was  probably  dead  before  his  son 
could  contract  the  incestuous  marriage.  It  is  a  difficulty 
that  Paul  speaks  of  him  who  "suffered  the  wrong"  in  the 
third  person  ;  but  he  may  do  so  both  for  the  sake  of  the 
antithesis,  and  in  order  to  avoid  emphasising  the  fact  that 
the  wrong  was  offered  to  himself.  The  conditions,  therefore, 
are  far  better  satisfied  if  we  suppose  that  Paul,  during  his 
brief  visit,  received  some  gross  insult,  which  was  resented 
by  the  better  men  in  the  church,  and  against  which  Paul 
himself  remonstrated  in  the  lost  letter,  but  to  which,  as  being 
merely  a  baseless  insult,  whatever  was  its  nature,  he  offers 
no  reply. 

That  I  press  not  too  heavily  (ii.,  5)- — The  meaning  is  not 
very  clear  ;  but  as  the  words  explain  the  insertion  of  "in 
part,"  they  are  probably  equivalent  to  "in  order  not  to  ex- 
aggerate." The  church  as  a  whole  was  grieved  ;  but  still 
there  were  some  exceptions.  Another  explanation  is,  ' '  that 
I  be  not  too  heavy  on  the  offender."- 

That  no  advantage  may  be  gained  over  us  by  Satan  (ii.,  II). — 
Satan  gained  an  advantage  through  dissensions  and  ill-feeling 
in  the  church.  Paul  therefore  was  willing  to  forgive  and 
forget  the  affront  which  had  been  offered  him.     If  the  refer- 


142  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  ii.,  13-15. 

ence  be  to  the  incestuous  man,  Satan  must  have  grinned 
with  malignant  satisfaction  that  Paul  was  forced  to  climb 
down  from  his  noble  moral  indignation,  and  to  cover  the 
ignominy  of  his  retreat  with  the  pretence  of  generosity. 
This  is  one  of  the  comparatively  few  places  where  the 
Apostle  alludes  to  diabolical  agency.  Words  may  continue 
to  be  used  after  they  have  ceased  to  represent  a  literal  be- 
lief; but  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Paul  accepted  the 
current  belief  about  evil  spirits,  although  it  enters  very  little 
into  his  great  doctrinal  passages.  It  hung  upon  the  fringe 
of  his  thought  rather  than  entered  into  the  substance  of  his 
ruling  and  original  convictions. 

His  love  for  the  church  is  now  illustrated  by  a  reference  to  the 
anxiety  with  which  he  had  awaited  news  from  Corinth,  and  his 
relief  on  learning  its  happy  character  (ii.,  12-17). 

The  passage  throws  a  vivid  light  on  the  eager  and  passion- 
ate nature  of  Paul ;  in  his  solicitude  he  could  not  even  preach 
his  beloved  Gospel  though  the  door  of  success  stood  open. 
The  narrative  resumes  that  which  was  begun  in  i.,  8. 

Titus  (ii.,  13). — The  mission  of  Titus  is  again  referred  to 
in  vii.,  6,  13,  14,  and  viii.,  6. 

Leadeth  us  in  triumph  (ii.,  14). — Some  would  give  to  this 
phrase  a  causative  meaning,  "makes  us  to  triumph,"  but 
everywhere  else  it  is  used  of  leading  a  captive  in  triumph. 
Still  the  context  implies  that  in  the  present  instance  the 
captive  shares  the  triumph  ;  and  spiritually  this  is  true.  He 
who  is  taken  captive  by  God  becomes  a  triumphant  power 
for  good  in  the  world. 

The  savour  of  his  knowledge  (ii.,  14),  referring  to  the  sweet 
spices  which  made  the  streets  fragrant  during  a  triumph. 
The  knowledge  is  the  savour. 

We  are  a  sweet  savour  (ii.,  15). — The  figure  abruptly 
changes,  and  the  Apostle  himself  becomes  the  fragrance. 
In  what  immediately  follows  I  cannot  think  that  he  is  refer^ 


ii.,  i6,  17.         SECOND  CORINTHIANS  143 

ring  to  his  Christian  opponents  ;  for  though  in  a  later  part 
of  the  Epistle  he  uses  very  energetic  language  about  them, 
here  he  is  speaking  with  a  view  to  conciliation,  and  the 
antithesis  is  rather  between  believers  and  unbelievers,  as  in 
I  Cor.  i.,  20-24.  The  effect  here  described  necessarily  ac- 
companies every  great  advance  in  spiritual  teaching.  To 
those  who  can  receive  it  it  is  a  source  of  ever-expanding 
life  ;  those  who  are  too  dead  to  apprehend  it  are  more  tightly 
clasped  by  their  dead  forms  and  beliefs.  We  may  compare 
the  rabbinical  saying,  "  The  words  of  the  Torali  have  power 
to  kill  and  to  make  alive.  ...  To  those  who  trust  in  it 
it  is  a  means  of  life  ;  but  to  those  who  turn  from  it  it  is  a 
means  of  death."     {Weber,  /iidisc/ie  Theologie,  1897,  p.  21.) 

Who  is  sufficient  for  these  things?  (ii.,  16). — No  answer  is 
given  ;  but  perhaps  a  double  answer  is  implied  :  first,  no 
one  ;  secondly,  we  Apostles,  only  our  sufi&cieucy  is  not  our 
own  (see  iii.,  5,  6).  The  second  answer  is  implied  by  the 
following  verse. 

We  are  not  as  the  many  (ii.,  17). — Is  it  possible  that  Paul 
means  that  the  mass  of  Christian  teachers  were  mere  corrupt- 
ers of  the  word  of  God  ?  Is  it  not  much  more  likely  that  he 
is  contrasting  Christian  teachers,  those  who  speak  "in 
Christ,"  with  the  general  run  of  teachers,  whether  Jewish  or 
heathen?  In  the  chapters  which  immediately  follow^  he 
refers  to  Jews  and  unbelievers,  and  not  to  doctrinal  differences 
within  the  Church  itself.  In  opposition  to  dead  forms  and 
self-laudatory  wisdom,  the  Christian  ministry  was  sincere, 
exercised  as  in  the  sight  of  God  from  whom  it  drew  all  its 
inspiration. 

Paul  now  enters  on  a  defensive  description  of  his  Apostolic  office, 
and  of  the  great  subjects  of  his  preaching  (iii.,  i-vi.,  10). 

There  is  no  very  obvious  reason  for  this,  and  I  know  not 
that  we  need  look  for  any  reason  beyond  the  fact  tliat  his 
"  heart  was  enlarged  "  (vi.,  1 1),  and  his  thoughts  came  well- 


144  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  iii.,  1-3 

ing  up  with  an  irrepressible  flow.  He  seems  to  have  in 
mind  chiefly  the  unbeheving  world,  whether  Jew  or  Gentile 
(see  iii.,  14,15;  iv.,4;v.,  ii,i9;vi.,  14).  He  may  possibly 
have  thought  also  of  some  internal  foes,  with  whom  he  deals 
at  length  farther  on  ;  but  we  must  not  forget  that  he  was 
continually  beset  by  external  enemies,  and  the  unconverted 
Jews  at  Corinth  would  be  influential  opponents,  who  would 
represent  him  as  a  falsifier  of  the  Scriptures,  and  as  a  self- 
interested  and  unscrupulous  agitator. 

He  opens  hy  disclaiming  the  need  of  commending  himself 
(iii.,  1-3). 

Are  zve  beginning  again  ?  (iii.,  i),  referring  to  a  former 
Epistle,  perhaps  the  lost  one,  perhaps  parts  of  i  Cor.  (parts 
of  v.,  ix.  ;  xiv.,  18;  xv.,  10). 

As  do  some  (iii.,  l)  ;  not  necessaril}^  a  gibe  at  opponents. 
Apollos  had  letters  of  recommendation  (Acts  xviii.,  27)  ;  but 
Paul,  the  founder  of  the  church,  needed  none  such. 

Our  epistle  .  .  .  anepistleofChrist  {\.n.,2,2)- — The  church 
is  compared  to  a  letter  of  recommendation  written  by  Christ 
himself,  and  borne  about  by  Paul,  not  in  his  hands,  but  in 
his  heart.  It  was  read  by  "all  men,"  not  merely  by  be- 
lievers ;  and  the  high  character  of  the  church  was  the  best 
proof  of  the  genuineness  of  Paul's  preaching.  The  substance 
of  the  epistle,  however,  was  the  Gospel  written  with  the 
Spirit  of  God  in  disciples'  hearts,  and  not  like  the  I^aw  on 
tables  of  stone.  The  figure  is  slightly  confused,  but  the 
sense  is  clear. 

The  confidence  thus  expressed  was  not  self-sufficiency,  but 
directed  towards  God,  who  had  made  him  the  minister  of  a 
new  and  glorious  covenant  (iii.,  4-I1).  To  follow  this  pas- 
sage intelligently  we  must  have  in  mind  the  account  in  Ex. 
xxxiv.,  29-35  (i^^  t^^^  Revised  Version),  which  Paul  assumes 
is  known  to  his  readers.  According  to  his  explanation,  so 
long  as  the  face  of  Moses  had  the  glow  of  Divine  communion, 
the  children  of  Israel  could  not  look  upon  its  brightness ; 


iii.,  6-12.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  145 

and  he  then  put  on  a  veil  that  they  might  not  see  the  light 
fading  away.  But  when  he  went  in  to  commune  with  the 
Lord  once  more,  he  took  ofiF  the  veil  that  the  glory  might  be 
rekindled. 

Not  of  the  letter,  bid  of  the  spirit  (iii.,  6). — The  contrast  is 
not  between  the  letter  and  the  spirit  of  a  law,  but  between 
a  written  authority  and  the  spirit  in  the  heart.  Paul  thus 
sweeps  away  with  a  single  .sentence  the  whole  of  the  Protest- 
ant bibliolatr)'.  A  sacred  scripture  may  be  of  inestimable 
value  when  interpreted  b}^  and  made  to  minister  to,  the 
spirit ;  but  when  used  as  an  engine  to  crush  the  spirit,  it 
"killeth." 

Miuistratio7i  of  death  (iii.,  7),  ministration  of  eondemnatioji 
(iii.,  9). — For  the  nature  and  effect  of  the  law,  Galatians  and 
Romans  must  be  consulted.  In  Paul's  view  the  law  was 
powerless  to  produce  righteousness.  It  flashed  the  light  of 
Divine  holiness  upon  the  conscience,  and  so  produced  the 
sense  of  sin,  of  condemnation,  of  death.  It  was  a  necessary 
but  passing  phase  in  the  education  of  mankind.  No  doubt, 
to  the  ordinary  Jew  it  could  not  thus  present  itself;  for  he 
was  not  ripe  for  the  spiritual  change  which  had  come  over 
Paul,  and  the  ordinary  man  seldom  goes  down  to  the  under- 
lying principles  of  things.  Reformers  are  born  out  of  the 
passionate  struggles  of  genius,  not  from  the  quiescence  of  a 
contented  mediocrit)'. 

Ministration  of  the  spirit  (iii.,  8),  ministration  of  righteous- 
ness (iii.,  9). — As  the  spirit  is  opposed  to  death,  so  is  right- 
eousness to  condemnation.  The  spirit  gives  life,  being  the 
indwelling  of  Divine  and  quickening  righteousness  in  the 
soul,  righteousness  in  its  highest  sense  not  being  the  perform- 
ance of  a  deed,  but  an  inward  harmony  with  God. 

The  thought  of  the  glory  of  the  Gospel  leads  to  further 
reflections  on  the  contrast  between  Jewish  and  Christian 
teaching  and  learning  (iii.,  12-18). 

Such  a  hope  (iii,,  12)  ;  the  hope  of  an  abiding  glory.    This 


146  SECOND  CORINTHIANS         iii.,  13-17. 

produced  complete  openness  of  speech,  as  there  was  nothing 
to  conceal. 

That  the  childre7i  of  Israel  should  not  look  steadfastly  on  the 
end  of  that  which  was  passing  away  (iii.,  13). — This  is  Paul's 
own  interpretation.  He  conceives  the  light  as  fading  from 
the  face  of  Moses  as  soon  as  he  had  delivered  the  command- 
ments, and  the  veil  as  put  on  in  order  that  the  termination 
of  the  transient  glow  might  not  be  seen.  Thus  was  sym- 
bolised the  transienc}^  of  the  Law,  and  the  inability  of  the 
Israelites  to  look  forward  to  its  cessation. 

The  same  veil  remaineth  unlifted  (iii.,  14). — The  transla- 
tion is  a  little  uncertain,  and  an  alternative  is  given  in  the 
margin.  The  general  sense,  however,  is  not  seriously  af- 
fected. There  is  at  this  point  a  curious  transition  in  the 
figure,  the  veil  being  transferred  from  Moses  to  his  hearers. 

Whe7isoever  it  shall  turn  to  the  Lord,  the  veil  is  taken  away 
(iii.,  16). — Again  there  is  a  little  confusion  in  the  application 
of  the  narrative.  There  the  children  of  Israel  turned  to 
Moses,  and  Paul  wants  them  to  turn  to  Christ ;  but  it  was 
Moses  who  had  the  veil  removed  when  he  went  in  to  speak 
with  the  Lord.  Perhaps  the  argimient.  so  far  as  such  com- 
parisons contain  an  argument,  is  this  :  the  Jews,  as  disciples 
of  Moses,  wear  a  veil  as  he  did  ;  but  as  he  laid  aside  the 
veil  in  his  hours  of  full  communion,  so  will  they  when  they 
cease  to  depend  on  their  tables  of  stone,  and  freely  commit 
themselves  to  the  converse  of  spirit  with  Spirit. 

The  Lord  is  the  Spirit  (iii.,  17). — "  The  Spirit  "  must  be 
the  life-giving  spirit  of  v.  6.  Christianity  is  a  spirit  of  life, 
not  a  law  or  a  creed,  though  it  is  the  source  of  both  ;  and 
therefore  its  essence  resides  in  a  living  person,  not  in  forms 
of  thought  which  pass  away.  The  word  of  God  has  become 
flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  through  the  death  of  the 
flesh  has  become  a  universal  Spirit,  through  whom  men 
obtain  true  and  perfect  liberty.  The  glory  of  law  and  pro- 
phet must  fade,  but  the  glory  of  Divine  Sonship  cannot  fade. 


iii.,  l7-iv.,2.    SECOND  CORINTHIANS  147 

The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  (iii.,  17),  after  the  identification  of 
the  Lord  and  the  Spirit,  is  linguistically  inaccurate  ;  but 
Paul,  the  seer  of  grand  visions,  is  not  attentive  to  these 
niceties  of  expression. 

Reflect  as  a  mirror  (iii.,  l8). — The  precise  meaning  is  un- 
certain. Such  usage  as  exists  favours  the  translation  "be- 
hold as  in  a  mirror"  ;  but  the  other  translation  seems  to  be 
allowable,  and  is  better  suited  to  the  sense.  Moses  reflected 
the  glory  of  God  ;  so  the  Christian  must  reflect  the  glory  of 
Christ.  This  kind  of  spiritual  reflection  implies  a  change 
into  the  same  image  ;  whereas  merely  looking  at  a  reflection 
in  a  mirror  does  not  suggest  this  transformation.  And 
again,  "we  all"  seems  to  be  contrasted  with  Moses.  He 
alone  had  the  glory  of  Divine  communion  on  his  face  ;  but 
all  Christians  have  laid  aside  the  veil,  and  carry  a  spiritual 
glory  on  their  countenance. 

We  have  here  a  further  evidence  that  Paul  is  not  attacking 
ajudaising  party  within  the  Church.  Had  he  been  doing 
so  he  could  not  have  used  this  emphatic  "  all." 

Still  following  the  line  of  thought  suggested  by  the  veil, 
Paul  asserts  the  openness  and  sincerity  of  his  preaching 
(iv.,  1-6).  It  is  quite  gratuitous  to  discover  in  this  passage 
an  insinuation  that  certain  Christian  opponents  were  actuated 
by  the  very  faults  which  he  disclaims  for  himself ;  and  if  he 
is  repelling  suggestions  that  his  Gospel  was  insincere  or 
obscure,  these  suggestions  came  from  the  "unbelieving" 
[v.  4),  who  could  not  understand  the  new  spiritual  power 
that  was  rising  among  them.  Perhaps,  however,  he  is  not 
repelling  attacks,  but  simply  contrasting  the  perfect  candour 
of  the  Christian  preachers  with  the  subtle  arguments  of 
rabbis  and  the  hollowness  of  Greek  rhetoricians. 

We  obtained  mercy  (iv.,  l),  in  our  conversion  and  call  to 
the  Christian  ministry.  The  sense  of  past  mercy  prevents 
all  faint-heartedness  in  the  delivery  of  our  message. 

We  have  renounced  (iv.,  2). — This  does  not  imply  that  he 


148  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  iv.,  2-6. 

once  had  the  fauhs  in  question,  but  that  he  had  consciously 
determined  not  to  have  them.  He  had  bidden  farewell  to 
the  region  where  men  practised  cunning  tricks  which  they 
concealed  through  shame. 

Every  man's  conscietice  (iv.,  2);  literally,  every  "con- 
science of  man , ' '  which  is  more  expressive.  Every  conscience, 
Christian,  Jewish,  or  pagan,  must  recognise  the  sincerity  of 
his  conduct.  Paul's  life  was  not  only  in  the  Church,  but  ' '  in 
the  world  "  (i.,  12). 

The  god  of  this  world  (iv.,  4),  i.e.,  Satan  (ii.,  11),  who  is 
represented  as  virtually  the  god  of  the  heathen  world  during 
this  present  age,  which  was  so  soon  to  make  way  for  the  age 
of  the  Messiah.  The  reign  of  the  Messiah  was  expected  to 
be  in  this  world,  though  in  a  future,  as  distinguished  from 
the  present,  "  age  "  (here  translated  "  world  "). 

The  image  of  God  (iv.,  4). — Man,  as  such,  is  described  as 
"the  image  and  glory  of  God"  in  i  Cor.  xi.,  7.  This  is 
the  ideal,  often  latent  in  him,  which  ought  to  govern  his 
actions.  Here  "  the  image  "  is  clearly  supposed  to  be  real- 
ised and  manifest.  The  religious  ideal  of  humanity  has  be- 
come actual,  and  therefore  a  revealing  glory  for  all  who  are 
not  blinded. 

For  (iv.,  5). — The  connection  seems  to  be,  I  mention 
Christ,  for  he  is  the  great  subject  of  our  preaching  ;  and 
perhaps  also,  there  is  no  need  to  be  insincere,  for  we  preach 
not  ourselves. 

Lord  .  .  .  servants  (or  rather  slaves,  iv.,  5)  are  correlated 
terms,  though  here  the  Apostles  are  represented  as  slaves 
of  those  to  whom  they  minister. 

In  our  hearts  .  .  .  i7i  the  face  of  J^esiis  Christ  (bj.,  6). — Ob- 
serve the  union  of  inward  and  outward  light  to  produce  rev- 
elation. If  the  heart  is  blind,  the  glory  of  God  will  for  us 
shine  vainly  in  the  face  of  Christ ;  if  with  open  eye  we  gaze 
into  blank  space,  we  discern  nothing.  The  same  idea  is  ex- 
pressed  in  detached  passages  in  John  :    ' '  No  one  cometh 


iv.,  7-10.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  149 

unto  the  Father,  but  by  me  "  (xiv.,  6)  ;  "  No  man  can  come 
to  me,  except  the  Father  which  sent  me  draw  him"  (vi., 
44).  The  context  shows  that  the  immediate  reference  here 
is  to  the  Apostles  ;  but  the  truth  is  universal,  and  is  recog- 
nised as  such,  as  we  see  from  iii.,  18. 

The  grandeur  of  the  Christian  revelation  contrasted  with 
the  weakness  and  suffering  which  Paul  had  lately  experi- 
enced leads  naturally  to  a  solemn  train  of  reflection.  The 
preachers  of  the  Gospel  are  weak  and  persecuted,  yet  they 
are  always  victorious  through  the  Divine  power  of  a  faith 
which  looks  to  the  eternal  world  (iv.,  7-v.,  lo).  It  is  need- 
less to  account  for  this  passage  by  supposing  that  judaising 
opponents  treated  Paul's  afflictions  as  a  Divine  chastisement 
for  his  falsification  of  the  Gospel.  The  sad,  yet  elevated  and 
triumphant  dignity  of  this  noble  meditation  is  wholly  unlike 
his  controversial  manner. 

Earthen  vessels  (iv.,  7) ;  referring  to  the  body,  the  feeble 
instrument  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  in  conscious  weakness  that 
the  Divine  power  becomes  most  manifest.  No  force  of  rhet- 
oric can  produce  the  tones  of  spiritual  conviction.  These 
come  only  when  the  soul  loses  itself  in  God. 

Pressed  on  every  side,  yet  not  straitened  (iv.,  8). — The  series 
of  contrasts,  drawn  from  that  in  v.  7,  are  figures  from  a  bat- 
tle, in  which  victory  is  won  out  of  seeming  defeat.  Compare 
i.,  8,  9,  where  Paul  confesses  to  a  momentary  despair,  and  an 
expectation  of  death  from  which  he  was  delivered  only  by 
the  mercy  of  God.  This  is  one  of  many  passages  which 
.show  that  persecution  on  account  of  their  faith  was  a  familiar 
incident  among  the  early  teachers  of  Christianity. 

The  dying  of  Jestis  .  .  .  the  life  also  of  fesiis  (iv.,  10). — 
As  Jesus  was  put  to  death,  so  his  soldiers  are  constantly  ex- 
posed to  death,  and  in  a  certain  sense  experience  it  through 
the  fatigue  and  stripes  and  wounds  which  cripple  their 
powers  ;  but  that  is  only  that  the  principle  of  Divine  and 
eternal  life  which  came  into  the  world  in  Jesus,  and  which  is 


ISO  SECOND  CORINTHIANS         iv.,  12-18. 

born  of  self-denial  and  suffering,  may  be  manifested  even 
through  that  flesh  which  seems  to  belong  to  death. 

Death  worketh  in  us,  but  life  in  you  (iv.,  12). — Rather  an 
unexpected  turn  ;  but  the  life  was  manifested  that  others 
might  see  and  share  it,  so  that  the  Apostles,  like  their  Mas- 
ter, were  giving  their  lives  for  the  life  of  the  world. 

The  same  spirit  of  faith  (iv.,  1 3),  the  same  as  the  ancient 
Psalmist.  Paul  quotes  from  the  lxx,  the  Hebrew  text  of 
Ps.  cxvi.,  10  not  yielding  the  same  sense.  The  whole  Psalm 
is  admirably  suited  to  the  Apostle's  state  of  mind. 

Shall  raise  up  us  also  (iv.,  14). — This  can  hardly  be  meant 
figuratively.  The  words  do  not  necessarily  preclude  a  hope 
of  surviving  till  the  second  Advent ;  but  since  writing  the 
First  Epistle  Paul  had  been  face  to  face  with  death,  and  he 
now  expresses  his  confidence  that,  even  if  he  died,  God  would 
nevertheless  present  him,  along  with  his  converts,  to  his 
risen  Lord. 

For  your  sakes  (iv.,  15),  referring  to  the  words  "  present  us 
with  you."  There  was  a  larger  purpose  than  that  affecting 
the  individual ;  the  grace  which  visited  one  spread  in  ever- 
widening  circles,  and  the  gratitude  of  one  heart  turned  into 
a  multiplied  thanksgiving. 

Outward  mart  ,  .  .  inward  man  (iv.,  16). — The  contrast 
already  referred  to  is  resumed  in  other  words.  The  affliction 
which  wears  down  the  body  nourishes  the  soul.  As  so  often 
with  the  saints  of  God,  the  might  of  the  spirit  flashed  from 
a  feeble  frame,  and  the  inward  eye  gazed  on  eternal  things 
which  were  impalpable  to  sense. 

Temporal  (iv.,  18). — The  word  properly  means  "tempo- 
rary," lasting  only  for  a  season,  and  ought,  I  think,  to  have 
been  so  translated. 

The  foregoing  thoughts  are  justified  by  the  certain  expect- 
ation of  immortal  life,  on  which  the  Apostle  now  dwells  (v., 
I-IO).  Commentators  are  by  no  means  agreed  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  this  passage  ;  but  it  is  impossible  in  our  space  to 


SECOND  CORINTHIANS  151 

discuss  the  various  opinions.  It  seems  clear  that  to  some 
extent  Paul's  view  has  changed  from  that  which  is  pre- 
sented in  the  earlier  Epistles.  In  things  in  which  we  walk 
by  faith,  and  not  by  the  actual  appearance  of  the  facts  them- 
selves, we  naturally  modify  our  views  and  the  figures  by 
which  we  express  them,  according  to  our  varying  moods. 
Paul  had  been  at  death's  door,  and  he  now  contemplates  the 
possibility,  almost  the  probability,  of  his  dying  before  the 
coming  of  the  Lord.  Could  that  mean  that  he  was  to  sink 
into  a  "sleep"  prolonged  for  an  indefinite  time,  and  so 
be  removed  utterly  from  communion  with  the  L,ord  whom 
he  loved  ?  He  could  no  longer  accept  that  view ;  rather 
would  death  bring  him  at  once  home  to  the  Lord.  But 
if  this  were  so,  it  must  be  without  the  body.  Was  he,  then, 
as  the  Greeks  supposed,  to  be  a  disembodied  spirit  like  the 
shades  in  Hades?  The  answer  is  uncertain.  Some  think 
that  he  believed  in  an  intervening  period,  when  the  spirit, 
although  with  the  Lord,  would  be  without  any  bodily  organ  ; 
and  that  verses  2-4  refer  to  the  alternative  possibilitj^  of  his 
surviving  till  the  second  Advent,  and  so  not  experiencing  dis- 
solution at  all.  This  seems  favoured  by  the  words  "  that 
what  is  mortal  may  be  swallowed  up  of  life,"  which  sug- 
gests a  change  in  the  earthly  body  rather  than  a  parting 
with  it  at  death.  Another  view  is  that  the  passage 
throughout  assumes  the  occurrence  of  death  before  the  com- 
ing of  the  Lord  ;  and  then  Paul  must  have  abandoned  the 
belief  that  the  spiritual  body  was  to  be  evolved  by  mysterious 
change  out  of  the  decay  of  the  grave,  and  have  expected  the 
eternal  habitation  to  descend  out  of  heaven,  and  to  be  super- 
induced at  the  moment  of  death,  so  that  the  spirit  would 
never  be  left  naked.  Neither  of  these  views  is  easily  recon- 
ciled with  the  doctrine  of  resurrection,  which  is  accepted  in 
iv. ,  14.  But  while  belief  is  growing  in  regard  to  things 
which  are  still  behind  the  veil,  we  need  not  look  for  absolute 
consistency  of  expression, 


152  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  v.,  i-io. 

We  may  observe,  as  perhaps  throwing  some  light  on  the 
subject,  that  according  to  a  Jewish  beUef  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  went  straight  to  the  presence  of  God,  while  others 
were  sent  into  SheoL' 

Tabernacle  (v.,  l),  a  current  figure  for  the  human  body, 
derived  from  its  transient  character,  and  here  contrasted 
with  a  "building,"  which  is  permanent.  The  building  is 
regarded  as  "in  the  heavens,"  waiting  for  occupancy  when 
the  time  comes.  We  are  reminded  that  the  figure  of  the  tent 
is  natural  to  Paul,  who  was  a  tent-maker. 

Iji  this  (v.,  2)  :  either  "  in  this  tabernacle,"  as  in  v.  4,  or 
perhaps  "  on  this  account."  The  longing  for  the  heavenly 
habitation  causes  us  to  groan,  and  the  groan  is  itself  an 
evidence  of  our  destination.     Compare  Rom.  viii.,  19-23. 

If  so  be  (v.,  3). — The  form  of  expression  in  the  Greek  does 
not  imply  doubt,  but  the  contrary. 

He  that  wrought  7is  for  this  very  thing  is  God  (v.,  5)- — 
Compare  i.,  21,  22,  where  also  everything  is  traced  up  to 
God,  and  the  Spirit  is  the  earnest  of  greater  things  to  come. 
See  also  v.  18. 

Sight  (v.,  7),  not  in  the  sense  of  seeing,  but  rather  of  that 
which  may  be  seen,  the  actual  form  and  appearance  of  the 
things  apprehended  by  faith. 

Whether  at  home  or  absent  (v.,  9)  ;  that  is,  in  relation  to 
the  body.  Absence  from  the  body  does  not  necessitate 
presence  with  the  Lord,  except  for  those  who  are  well-pleas- 
ing to  him. 

May  receive  the  things  done  in  the  body  (v.,  lO). — This 
statement  is  perfectly  explicit,  and  proves  that  Paul  had  no 
notion  of  substituting  a  spurious  for  a  real  righteousness. 
Compare  Rom.  ii.,  6,  16;  Gal.  vi.,  7,  8.  The  fruits  of  the 
Spirit  are  not  bad,  but  good. 

The  hope  of  immortality  and  the  certainty  of  judgment 

'  '^Qh^XyJicdische  Theologie,  pp.  338  and  341. 


v.,  11-14.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  153 

make  the  Apostles  eager  to  preach  the  Gospel  of  reconcilia- 
tion (v.,  ii-vi.,  10). 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  (v.,  Il)  ;  that  is,  reverent  fear  directed 
towards  him,  and  (as  the  context  shows)  arising  from  the 
anticipation  of  judgment. 

Wc pcrsjiade  men  (v.,  II).— We  need  not  supply  "of  our 
integrit}^,"  or  "of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,"  or  any  similar 
expression.  The  phrase  is  used  elsewhere  in  the  sense 
of  conciliating  or  gaining  the  favour  of  anyone.  In  Acts 
xii.,  20,  it  is  translated  "  having  made  their  friend."  In 
Gal.  i.,  ID,  it  is  equivalent  to  "  seeking  to  please  men."  So 
it  may  be  here.  Paul  .sought  to  conciliate  all  kinds  of 
men,  that  he  might  win  some.  But  in  doing  so  he  was 
already  (before  the  judgment)  made  manifest  to  God,  who 
saw  that  he  had  no  selfish  end  ;  and  he  hoped  that  his  con- 
duct was  equally  clear  in  the  consciences  of  his  readers. 
The  word  is,  however,  also  used  of  persuading  men  to  believe 
the  Gospel,  Acts  xviii.,  4,  and  this  meaning  would  suit  v.,  20 
and  vi.,  i. 

This  was  not  said  for  the  purpose  of  commending  himself, 
but  to  supply  the  Corinthians  with  an  answer  when  he  was 
attacked  (v.,  12).  Those  who  gloried  in  outside  distinctions 
may  very  likely  have  been  Jews,  but  we  need  not  here  insist 
on  discovering  judaising  Christians.  The  words  would  also 
apply  to  those  who  were  proud  of  their  excellency  of  speech 
and  their  wisdom. 

We  are  beside  ourselves  (v.,  13). — The  tense  is  past,  and 
the  reference  is  probably  to  the  ecstatic  visions  of  Paul. 
These  were  for  the  glory  of  God,  not  for  his  own  exalta- 
tion. His  more  sober  words  (which  were  also  for  the 
glory  of  God)  were  more  distinctly  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Church.     In  neither  was  there  anything  selfish  or  worldly. 

The  love  of  Christ  (v.,  14)  must,  according  to  usage,  mean 
Christ's  love  to  us.  His  love  naturall}-  suggests  his  death  as 
the  final  proof  of  love.     ' '  Greater  love  hath  no  man  than 


154  SECOND  CORINTHIANS         v.,  14-16. 

this,  that  a  man  lay  down  his  life  for  his  friends."  The 
connection  seems  to  be  this  :  the  change  wrought  in  us  by 
the  love  of  Christ — the  dying  to  self,  and  rising  into  life  for 
him — obliterates  all  reliance  on  outward  distinctions,  and 
creates  a  pure  sincerity  of  character.  The  Christian  teacher 
has  not  excellence  of  speech  or  of  wisdom,  but  demonstra- 
tion of  the  Spirit  and  of  power,  not  a  conceited  display  of 
personal  superiority,  but  the  grace  of  God  speaking  in  the 
inimitable  tones  of  convinced  and  redeemed  humanity. 

All  died  (v.,  14). — The  language  is  universal.  In  the 
thought  of  Paul  the  whole  of  mankind  had  died  and  risen  in 
Christ,  the  second  man.  The  death  on  Calvary  was  of  world- 
wide significance,  "  on  behalf  of  all."  It  marked  a  new  era 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  past  was  dead,  and  the 
heavenly  life  of  sons  of  God  had  become  a  realit}'.  For  all 
men,  indeed,  to  enter  individually  into  this  life  time  would  be 
required ;  but  in  Paul's  view,  no  long  time.  The  faith  of 
Christ  would  sweep  triumphantly  over  the  earth,  and  within 
a  generation  the  great  consummation  would  appear.  The 
central  and  spiritual  thought  remains ;  but  God's  times  are 
not  as  ours. 

We  know  no  man  after  the  flesh  (v.,  1 6)  :  we  pay  no  re- 
gard to  merely  adventitious  distinctions.  The  cross  has 
destroyed  all  these,  and  made  the  life  of  self-denying  love 
the  sole  test.  "  We  "  is  emphatic  in  the  Greek,  and  there- 
fore implies  a  contrast  with  "  them  that  glory  in  appearance  " 
in  V.  12. 

We  have  known  Christ  after  the  flesh  (v.,  16). — From  the 
connection  this  cannot  mean,  known  him  in  the  days  of  his 
earthly  life,  but  known  him  in  relation  to  earthly  grandeur 
and  prerogative.  But  when  was  this  ?  Not  after  his  con- 
version, in  which  God  revealed  His  Son  in  him.  But  if  he 
refers  to  the  time  before  his  conversion,  we  must  understand 
"  Christ  "  in  a  general  sense  :  his  views  of  the  Messiah  took 
the  form  of  worldly  ambition  and  splendour ;  but  from  the 


v.,  17-19.  SECOA'D  CORINTHIANS  155 

time  when  he  recognised  Christ  in  the  crucified,  such  ideas 
disappeared  as  a  fleshly  dream,  and  spiritual  greatness  came 
to  his  thought  in  all  the  majest)'  and  power  of  humble  self- 
sacrifice  under  the  leading  of  Divine  love.  When  will 
Christendom  believe  ? 

Wherefore  (v.,  17),  introducing  the  consequence  of  all 
that  has  been  said  in  the  last  three  verses.  That  implies  far 
more  than  a  change  of  opinion  in  embracing  Christianity. 
"  If  any  man  is  in  Christ,"  having  a  deep  and  inward  union 
with  him,  "  he  is  a  new  creature,"  altered  in  the  very  essence 
of  his  being. 

All  things  are  of  God  (v.,  18)  :  literally,  "  out  of  God," 
which  is  more  expressive  ;  coming  forth,  as  it  were,  from 
His  substance  as  the  sole  ultimate  reality.  It  is  noticeable 
how  this  thought  recurs  as  a  refrain  (i.,  21  ;  v.,  5).  The  life 
of  Christ  and  the  spread  of  Christianity  were  not  mere  acci- 
dents of  human  history,  but  were  part  of  the  great  world-plan 
of  God  ;  and  the  mind  must  continually  rise  to  Him  as  the 
ultimate  Cause  of  all,  the  eternal  Source  of  good,  whose 
righteousness  was  now  made  manifest. 

Who  reco7iciled  tcs  to  himself  (v.,  18). — The  initiative  is 
with  God.  It  is  not  man  that  by  meritorious  works  earned 
a  reward  from  God,  but  God  who,  through  the  power  of  love 
in  Christ,  drew  man  up  into  harmony  with  Himself,  making 
him  the  "  new  creature  "  just  referred  to,  no  longer  earthly- 
minded,  but  heavenlj'-minded. 

The  ministry  of  reconciliation  (v.,  18)  :  a  brief  summing 
up  of  the  purpose  of  Christianit}-,  to  slay  the  enmity  in  the 
human  heart,  and  bring  man  home  to  God. 

God  zvas  in  Christ  recoyiciling  the  zvorld  (v.,  19). — "In 
Christ"  must  be  connected  with  the  latter  words,  and  not 
with  God  ;  so  that  it  describes  here,  not  the  indwelling  of 
God  in  Christ,  but  the  work  which  He  accomplished  in  and 
through  him.  Paul  nniversalises  the  reconciliation,  as  before 
he  had  universali.sed  the  dying  to  the  past  {v.  14),  not  as 


156  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  v.,  19-21. 

implying  that  it  had  already  taken  place,  but  as  expressing 
the  purpose  and  result.  Indeed  he  refrains  from  saying  that 
God  had  reconciled  the  world,  and  describes  instead  the 
process  in  which  He  had  been  engaged  in  Christ. 

Not  reckoning  unto  them  their  trespasses  (v.,  19),  that  is, 
their  past  offences  against  the  law  of  right.  He  was  not 
judging  them  by  a  debtor-and-creditor  account,  but  receiv- 
ing in  fatherly  love  all  who  turned  to  Him  in  faith.  Thus 
the  father  in  the  parable  did  not  reckon  his  riotous  living 
against  the  humbled  prodigal. 

As  though  God  were  intreating  by  us  (v.,  20). — This,  then, 
was  the  way  in  which  God  was  reconciling  the  world,  in- 
treating  men  through  Christ,  and  now  through  Christ's 
ambassadors.  Thus,  to  refer  once  more  to  the  parable,  the 
father  "  intreated  "  his  eldest  son.  There,  however,  there  is 
no  mediation  ;  yet  if  it  is  true  that  the  Father  speaks  direct 
to  the  human  .soul,  still  He  generall}'  finds  us  first  through 
the  beating  of  human  hearts  and  the  soft  words  of  human 
lips. 

Be  ye  recoyiciled  to  God  (v.,  20). — Man,  then,  had  to  re- 
spond to  the  Divine  appeal,  and  lay  aside  his  enmity.  But 
were  not  the  Corinthians  already  reconciled  ?  We  cannot 
escape  from  this  question  by  saying  that  Paul  is  only 
describing  the  general  character  of  his  message ;  for  he 
seems  clearly  in  these  words  to  be  pressing  it  home  upon 
the  Corinthians.  The  great  act  of  reconciliation  does  not 
preclude  a  succession  of  minor  acts  before  the  heart  and  will 
are  absolutely  at  one  with  God. 

Him  who  Jmew  no  si?i  he  made  to  be  sin  on  our  behalf  {y.^  2l). 
— This  is  one  of  those  great  sayings  of  Paul's  which  suggest 
so  much,  and  for  that  very  reason  leave  it  uncertain  what 
precise  shade  of  meaning  he  intended  to  conve3\  There  is  one 
interpretation,  however,  which  we  may  confidently  set  aside. 
The  second  "  sin  "  cannot  mean  a  sin-offering,  for  the  word 
never  has  that  sense,  and  we  cannot  attach  two  meanings  to 


v.,  21.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  157 

the  same  word  within  the  Hmits  of  the  same  hue.  Does  the 
expression,  then,  mean  simpl}^  that  Christ  suffered  the 
punishment  of  death,  as  though  he  had  been  the  embodi- 
ment of  sin  ?  This  may  be  inchided,  but  by  itself  is  hard 
and  unsatisfactory.  The  proper  antithesis  of  "  knew  no  sin  " 
is  "became  acquainted  with  sin,"  and  this  Christ  did 
through  the  sympathy  of  love,  going  down  into  the  dark 
places  of  human  guilt,  and  bearing  on  his  own  heart  the 
grief  and  shame  of  others'  sin.  It  is  this  identification  of 
himself  with  the  sin  and  misery  of  his  brethren,  when 
he  might  have  lived  alone  on  serene  and  holy  heights  of 
contemplation  and  communion,  which  draws  men  to  him, 
and  leads  them  to  identify  themselves  with  the  righteousness 
that  was  in  him.  The  depth  and  power  of  this  love  were 
made  manifest  on  the  cross,  when  he  submitted  to  the  punish- 
ment of  a  guilty  slave  ;  but  without  a  prior  manifestation  of 
the  love  in  its  redemptive  and  healing  action  the  crucifixion 
would  be  only  a  painful  riddle. 

That  we  might  become  the  righteousness  of  God  in  him 
(v.,  21). — "We"  is  emphatic,  in  opposition  to  "him"  of 
the  previous  clause.  The  statement  may  be  true  of  mankind 
generally  ;  but  I  think  it  appears  both  from  the  preceding 
and  from  the  following  context  that  the  Christian  teachers 
are  those  immediately  in  view.  They  were  to  be  an  em- 
bodiment of  the  righteousness  of  God  in  Christ,  that  they 
might  call  on  men  with  the  power  of  a  Divine  appeal  to  be 
reconciled  to  God.  We  may,  however,  universalise  the 
thought ;  and  then  we  naturally  ask.  Is  the  righteousness  of 
God  to  be  as  unreal  in  us  as  sin  in  Christ,  and  is  the  Apostle 
only  dealing  with  things  falsely  imputed  ?  The  answer  lies 
in  the  nature  of  the  things  contrasted.  The  sympathetic 
identification  of  oneself  with  sin  o\\\y  tends  to  keep  the 
heart  more  holy,  and  the  anguish  of  Gethsemane  draws  the 
will  into  more  complete  self-surrender  ;  the  sympathetic 
identification   of  oneself    with   righteousness,   through   the 


158  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  vi.,  1-8. 

appeal  of  love,  tends  to  bring  one  nearer  to  righteousness, 
and  to  make  it  a  more  commanding  power  in  the  life. 

Workmg  together  with  him  (vi.,  i). — The  words  "with 
him  ' '  are  inserted  by  the  translators.  Probably  ' '  with  God ' ' 
is  meant,  though  other  explanations  have  been  given. 
Compare  i  Cor.  iii.,  9. 

Saith  (vi.,  2). — The  quotation  is  from  the  lxx,  Isaiah 
xlix.,  8. 

Giving  (vi.,  3). — This  agrees  with  "  we  "  in  v.  i,  the  inter- 
vening verse  being  parenthetical.  He  once  more  enlarges 
on  the  self-denial  of  his  ministry,  which  proved  that  it  was 
not  open  to  blame,  and  ought  to  .secure  the  sympathy  of  the 
Corinthians. 

Commending  ourselves  (vi.,  4). — It  has  been  pointed  out 
that  in  the  Greek  "  ourselves  "  here  is  not  emphatic,  as  it  is 
when  he  repels  the  charge  of  self-commendation.  "  Minis- 
ters of  God"  is  in  the  nominative.  It  is  as  being  God's 
ministers  that  they  strive  to  commend  themselves  by  their 
faithful  labour  and  endurance. 

Fastings  (vi.,  5)- — According  to  the  usage  of  the  word 
these  must  have  been  voluntary.  The  word  gives  a  moment- 
ary, but  not  unimportant,  glimpse  into  Paul's  private  re- 
ligious habits. 

I71  the  Holy  Ghost  (vi.,  6). — The  collocation  seems  to  make 
it  clear  that  the  Hol}^  Spirit  is  not  here  regarded  as  a  person. 
There  is  no  article  in  the  Greek  ;  but  this  is  only  in  agree- 
ment with  the  rest  of  the  passage,  and  does  not  supply  a 
reason  for  understanding  the  phrase  in  any  but  the  usual 
sense.     There  was  not  yet  a  formulated  doctrine. 

As  deceivers,  and  yet  true  (vi.,  8). — It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  first  clause  expresses  the  opinion  of  advers- 
aries, and  that  this  is  contradicted  by  the  second  clause. 
Hence  the  translators  have  inserted  "yet."  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  the  words  may  refer  to  the  two  kinds  of 
"report"  (Alford).     A  similar  remark  applies  to  the  sue- 


vi  ,  10.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS 


'59 


ceeding  words,  "as  unknown,  and  ;r/  well  known."  The 
subsequent  clauses,  in  either  case,  seem  to  describe  contrasted 
experiences  in  Paul's  own  life. 

As  poor,  yet  making  many  rich  (vi.,  lo)  ;  that  is,  poor  in 
worldly  goods,  yet  enriching  many  with  spiritual  treasure. 
Some,  thinking  that  both  words  must  be  understood  literally, 
suppose  that  the  reference  is  to  alms  or  collections.  But 
these  can  never  have  been  sufficient  to  make  the  recipient 
rich.  There  is  a  similar  contrast  in  the  following  words: 
outwardly  he  was  destitute,  and  had  nothing  that  he  could 
call  his  own  ;  inwardly  he  held  the  universe,  and  appro- 
priated spiritually  all  the  beauty  and  glory  of  the  world. 

In  the  long  description  of  the  nature  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  life  of 
hardship  which  he  so  willingly  underwent  on  its  behalf,  Paul  has 
not  forgotten  the  immediate  object  which  he  has  in  view,  to  restore 
perfectly  good  relations  between  himself  and  the  church  at  Corinth ; 
so  he  now  beseeches  them  to  open  their  hearts  to  him,  and  not 
allow  themselves  to  be  misled  by  unbelievers  (vi.,  ii-vii.,  4). 

In  presenting  the  subject  in  this  way  I  assume  that  the 
paragraph  vi.,  14-vii.,  i  is  genuine.  It  is  apparently  .so 
disconnected  that  many  regard  it  as  an  interpolation  ;  but 
there  is  no  external  authority  to  justify  a  doubt,  and'  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  how  an  interpolation  which  on  the 
face  of  it  is  so  inappropriate  came  to  be  inserted  in  all  the  manu- 
.scripts.  It  may  be  pointed  out,  too,  that,  if  we  are  to  judge 
simply  by  connection,  there  must  be  a  far  larger  interpola- 
tion ;  for  vii.,  5  is  the  immediate  continuation  of  ii.,  i3_ 
But  Paul  has  chosen  to  insert  a  number  of  grand  reflections, 
many  of  which  may  have  occupied-  his  mind  while  he  was 
waiting  in  Macedonia  for  Titus.  The  explanation  which  I 
have  given  of  these  reflections  lends  some  appropriateness  to 
the  warning  against  unbelievers.  We  are  too  apt  to  think 
of  Paul  as  exercising  all  his  activity  within  the  Church,  and 
of  his  adversaries  as  being   necessarily  Jewish  Christians, 


i6o  SECOND  CORINTHIANS        vi.,  I1-14. 

and  we  forget  that  he  was  in  ceaseless  conflict  with  the  great 
worlds  of  Judaism  and  heathenism,  and  that  his  converts 
were  subject  to  every  kind  of  extraneous  influence  that 
could  make  them  traitors  to  their  faith.  Many  a  gibe 
against  the  Apostle  may  have  been  uttered  by  the  polished 
rhetoricians  of  Corinth,  many  a  charge  of  double-dealing 
and  religious  imposture  been  made  by  the  worldly-wisemen 
of  the  fashionable  and  immoral  city.  If  we  knew  all  the 
circumstances  to  which  allusions,  to  us  obscure,  are  made  in 
the  Epistle,  we  might  see  that  the  paragraph  was  quite  in 
place,  much  of  the  coldness  towards  Paul  being  the  result  of 
an  unworthy  deference  to  heathen  sentiment  and  practice. 
Among  those  who  regard  the  passage  as  an  interpolation, 
some,  on  the  alleged  ground  that  it  is  un-Pauline  both  in 
language  and  sentiment,  take  it  to  be  a  later  forger}^ ;  others, 
conceding  that  it  may  be  Paul's,  suppose  that  it  has  got  mis- 
placed. One  of  the  happiest  suggestions  from  the  latter  side 
is  that  it  was  part  of  the  lost  letter  to  which  reference  is 
made  in  i  Cor.  v.,  9,  and  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  very  misap- 
prehension which  is  there  corrected.  We  must  then  suppose 
that  the  leaf  containing  it  got  accidentally  inserted  when  the 
Epistles  were  prepared  for  publication. 

Our  heart  is  enlarged  (vi.,  Il),  or,  more  strictly,  "has 
been  enlarged,"  referring  to  that  expansiveness  of  feeling 
which  led  him  to  take  into  its  embrace  all  the  Christians  at 
Corinth,  and  pour  forth  so  freely  to  them  his  high  thoughts 
and  his  personal  experiences.  If  there  was  anj^  narrowness 
in  the  matter  it  was  in  their  affection  for  him  ;  but  as  they 
were  his  spiritual  children,  they  ought  to  lay  aside  their  sus- 
picions, and  become  large-hearted  towards  him. 

Unequally  yoked  (y I. y  14),  a  figure  borrowed  from  placing 
two  unequal  animals,  as  an  ox  and  an  ass,  under  the  same 
yoke.  See  Levit.  xix.,  19  in  the  lxx,  and  Dent,  xxii., 
10.  The  figure,  combined  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  pas- 
sage,  seems   to  me  to  require  more   than  separation   from 


vi.,  15-vii.,  I.    S/iCOND  CORINTHIANS  161 

heathen  sins,  and  to  demand  a  certain  aloofness  from  heathen 
society  and  influence.  I  cannot,  however,  regard  this  as  un- 
Pauline.  Though  in  Christ  there  was  neither  Jew  nor  Greek, 
Paul  recognised  fully  the  evils  of  the  Gentile  world  ;  and  if 
he  did  not  require  his  disciples  to  "go  out  of  the  world  "  (i 
Cor.  v.,  10),  he  reproves  them  severely  even  for  going  before 
the  civil  tribunals  {ib.,  vi.,  i  sqq.),  and  insists  that  they  must 
abstain  from  everything  that  could  be  interpreted  into  com- 
plicity with  Gentile  worship  (ib.,  viii.,  i  sqq.  ;  x.,  i^sqq.). 
The  present  passage  does  not  enter  into  details,  but  imj^lies 
clearly  enough  that  the  grounds  of  the  needed  separation 
were  the  idolatrous  and  sinful  practices  of  the  heathen  ;  and 
the  admonition  does  not  go  further  than  we  might  expect  if 
the  Corinthians  exposed  themselves  too  freely  to  Gentile  in- 
fluence, and  listened  too  readily  to  Gentile  arguments  and 
insinuations. 

Belial  (vi.,  15)  had  become  a  synonym  for  Satan.  The 
Greek  Beliar  indicates,  perhaps,  not  an  accidental,  but  a 
contemptuous  change  of  pronunciation. 

As  God  said  (vi.,  16).— The  quotation  is  made  up  from 
Levit.  XX vi.,  12,  and  Ezek.  xxxvii.,  27. 

Saith  the  Lord  (vi.,  17).— The  quotation  is  taken  rather 
loosely  from  Isai.  Hi.,  11,  and  Ezek.  xx.,  34  (lxx). 

Will  be  to  you  a  Father  {vl,  18).— The  quotation  is  sug- 
gested by  the  lxx  of  2  Kings  [Sam.]  vii.,  8,  14;  Isal. 
xliii.,  6. 

Defilement  of  flesh  and  spirit  (vii.,  i).— It  is  needless  to 
drag  in  here  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  connection  between  the 
flesh  and  sin.  However  we  may  interpret  that  doctrine, 
any  overt  act  of  uncleanness,  sucli  as  was  common  with  the 
Gentiles,  would  be  a  defilement.  The  idea  of  a  defile- 
ment of  the  spirit  is  more  unexpected  ;  for  Paul  means  by 
the  spirit  that  higher  element  in  us  which  brings  us  into 
communion  with  God.  But  such  terms  are  flexible,  and 
here  it  is  applied  simply  to  the  conscious  element  in  us, 


i62  SECOND  CORINTHIANS         vii.,  2-10. 

which  is  distinguished  from  the  flesh.  Compare  i  Cor.  vii., 
34,  where  we  have  "  body  and  spirit,"  or,  as  we  might  say, 
body  and  mind. 

Open  your  hearts  to  us  (vii.,  2). — This  is  connected  both  in 
thought  and  in  language  (in  the  Greek)  with  vi.,  11-13  ;  and 
whether  the  parenthetical  paragraph  be  genuine  or  not,  I 
cannot  regard  this  as  the  introduction  to  a  fresh  section. 

We  wronged  no  jnan,  etc.  (vii.,  2). — He  is  repelling 
charges,  such  as  might  very  well  have  proceeded  from  Gen- 
tiles, when  they  saw  their  friends  perverted,  as  they  thought, 
by  Paul.  In  the  improved  state  of  his  relations  with  the 
church  the  mere  denial  of  such  charges  was  sufficient, 

/  say  it  not  to  condemn  you  (vii,,  3). — He  does  not  refer 
to  these  charges  in  order  to  condemn  his  readers  for  having 
listened  to  them,  but  only  to  put  himself  right. 

The  thought  of  comfort  in  affliction  (vii.,  4)  leads  him  to  resume  the 
historical  narrative  which  he  broke  off  at  ii.,  13,  and  to  speak  of  the 
joy  which  he  derived  from  the  coming  of  Titus  with  good  news  about 
the  state  of  things  at  Corinth  (vii.,  5-16). 

Our  flesh  had  no  relief  (vii.,  5),  alluding  probably  to  the 
bodil}^  restlessness,  amounting  sometimes  to  sleeplessness, 
which  is  produced  by  great  anxiety.  In  ii.,  13,  he  says  he 
had  no  relief  for  his  spirit,  the  conscious  seat  of  his  anxieties 
and  fears. 

With  my  epistle  (vii.,  8),  now  lost  :  see  the  Introduction. 
In  his  anxiety  as  to  its  effect  he  had  regretted  sending  it. 
When  Titus  came,  he  learned  that  it  really  had  given  pain, 
but  only  for  a  season,  and  that  it  had  had  the  desired  result 
of  producing  repentance  and  reviving  the  affection  of  the 
brethren  towards  himself. 

That  ye  might  stiffer  loss  by  us  in  iiothing  (vii,,  9),  indicat- 
ing the  Divine  purpose.  Sorrow  with  such  blessed  results 
could  not  be  counted  "  loss." 

Which  bringcth  no  regret  (vii,,  lO). — Some  would  connect 


vii.,  10-12.       SECOND  CORINTHIANS  163 

this  with  "salvation."  But  though  this  is  grammatically 
admissible,  it  seems  inappropriate,  for  no  one  could  suppose 
that  salvation  was  a  thing  to  be  regretted.  There  may  be  an 
allusion  to  Paul's  present  regret  that  he  had  ever  repented  of 
sending  his  letter. 

T/ie  sorrow  of  the  zvorld  icorkdh  death  (vii.,  lo)  ;  the  sorrow 
felt  by  worldly  men,  which  was  selfish  and  related  to  mate- 
rial things,  as  distinguished  from  "  godly  sorrow."  It  is 
far  fetched  to  interpret  "  death  "  of  suicides  brought  about  by 
despair.  Death  refers  to  the  loss  of  spiritual  vitality,  the 
death  of  the  soul,  as  contrasted  with  "  salvation." 

What  earnest  care,  etc.  (vii.,  II). — They  took  the  matter 
much  more  seriously  to  heart  ;  they  sought  to  clear  them- 
selves of  all  complicity  in  the  offence,  and  were  indignant 
with  the  offender  ;  they  feared  that  Paul  might  be  alienated 
from  them,  and  longed  for  his  return  ;  they  were  zealous  to 
inflict  proper  punishment,  and  did  actually  inflict  it. 

I IV rote  not  for  his  cause  that  did  the  lurong  (vii.,  12). — See 
the  note  on  ii.,  5-1 1.  If  Paul  referred  in  this  verse  to  the 
case  of  incest,  I  am  afraid  we  could  only  say  it  was  quite  un- 
worthy of  him.  But  if  he  meant  that  a  mere  personal  affront 
was  not  in  itself  worth  notice,  but  that  he  wished  to  bring 
his  friends  to  a  full  and  clear  consciousness  of  their  real 
affection  for  him,  then  he  writes  as  we  should  expect.  He 
seems  to  have  feared  that  the  insult  was  acquiesced  in  by 
others,  and  he  wished  by  an  earnest  appeal  to  waken  into 
active  manifestation  the  love  which  he  felt  sure  was  indeed 
there.  The  letter  had  the  desired  result.  Titus,  who  seems 
to  have  gone  there  with  some  apprehension,  was  delighted 
with  his  visit,  and  Paul  was  completely  reassured. 

We  now  enter  on  the  second  division  of  the  Epistle,  which  gives 
full  instructions  about  the  collection  for  the  poor  Christians  in 
Jerusalem  (viii.-ix.). 

He  begins  by  appealing  to  the  example  of  the  churches  in  Mace- 
donia (viii.,  1-6). 


1 64  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  viii.,  1-9. 

The  grace  of  God  (viii.,  l). — "  Grace  "  must  be  used  here 
in  its  ordinary  sense.  The  Macedonians  were  moved  by  the 
grace  of  God.     Farther  on  it  denotes  the  gracious  gift. 

Proof  of  afflidioji  (viii.,  2)  ;  that  is,  affliction  which  put 
them  to  the  proof.  See  i  Thess.  ii.,  14  ;  iii.,  3-5  ;  and  for 
a  later  time,  Phil,  i.,  29. 

Liberality  (viii.,  2);  literally,  "simplicity";  and  there- 
fore, when  connected  with  giving,  denoting  the  simple  gen- 
erositj'-,  and  therefore  liberality,  with  which  the  gift  is 
made.  This  meaning,  however,  is  not  undisputed,  and  the 
word  certainly  suggests  the  pure  feeling  of  the  giver  rather 
than  the  extent  of  his  gift. 

As  he  had  made  a  begimiing  before  (viii.,  6). — This  seems 
naturahy  to  mean  "  before  his  last  visit,"  though  in  the  im- 
perfect state  of  our  information  we  must  leave  details  in  un- 
certainty. It  has  also  been  understood  to  refer  to  his  last 
visit,  in  which  he  began  before  the  Macedonians  ;  but  the 
collecting  of  Titus  and  the  giving  of  the  Macedonians  do  not 
properl}^  come  into  comparison,  and  we  must  supply  some- 
thing relating  to  the  action  of  Titus  himself. 

After  this  introduction  he  exhorts  them  to  contribute  willingly, 
and  in  Christian  love,  according  to  their  means  (viii.,  7-15). 

By  ivay  of  C07nmandment  (viii.,  8)  :  that  is,  I  do  not  com- 
mand that  this  collection  be  made,  but  only  appeal  to  your 
love  to  carry  it  out. 

The  grace  of  oitr  Lord  fcsus  Christ  (viii.,  9),  the  gracious 
spirit  of  love,  which  led  him  to  give  up  so  much  for  others. 
This  verse  is  frequently  explained  as  referring  to  Christ's 
pre-existence  :  though  he  was  rich  in  heavenlj^  glor3%  he  re- 
nounced it  through  the  incarnation.  I  cannot  persuade  my- 
self that  this  interpretation  is  correct.  For,  first,  "Jesus" 
is  the  name  of  the  man  who  lived  and  taught  in  Palestine  ; 
and  "Christ"  is  the  official  title  of  a  man  who  was 
' '  anointed  "  for  a  special  work  on  earth  ;  so  that  the  pre-ex- 


viii.,  9.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  165 

istent  being  (if  Paul  recognised  such)  was  not  Jesus  Christ, 
but  incarnate  /«  Jesus  Christ.  Consequentl}^  if  the  refer- 
ence here  is  to  pre-existence,  Paul  must  have  believed  that 
the  human  personality  pre-existed.  He  may,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  have  held  the  common  belief  that  all  souls  pre- 
existed ;  but  this  is  at  all  events  not  the  doctrine  of  the  later 
theology,  and  it  is  doubtful  wdiether  the  earthly  names 
would  be  applied  even  to  a  pre-existent  soul.  It  is  true 
that  when  the.se  names  had  come  to  be  habitually  employed 
so  as  to  cover  the  whole  personality  of  the  incarnate  Son, 
people  could  speak  loo.sely  of  the  pre-existence  of  Jesus 
Christ  ;  but  I  think  Paul  in  such  a  case  would  have  avoided 
this  misleading  language,  and  have  spoken  of  "  the  Son  of 
God."  Secondly,  the  Greek,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  means 
not  "became  poor,"  but  "was  poor,"  and  implies  that  the 
"  being  rich  "  was  contemporaneous  with  the  povert3^'  The 
verse  then  means,  that  though  he  was  rich  in  every  spiritual 
possession  (which  might  have  made  him  great  and  power- 
ful), he  lived  a  life  of  poverty,  that  ye  may  be  spiritually 
wealthy.  We  have  already  seen  "  poor  "  and  "  rich  "  used 
with  a  transition  from  the  literal  to  the  metaphorical  mean- 
ing in  the  same  ver.se  (vi.,  10).  We  are  apt  to  suppose  that 
the  life  of  Christ,  before  the  closing  scenes,  did  not  involve 
much  renunciation,  becau.se  he  came  probably  of  a  poor  fam- 
ily ;  but  he  must  have  meant  something  by  taking  up  the 
cross  dail3%  and  not  having  where  to  lay  his  head.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  choose  a  life  of  poverty  for  the  sake  of  some  lov- 
ing service,  even  though  there  is  not,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Buddha  or  of  St.  Francis,  any  store  of  material  wealth  to 
abandon. 

'  See  the  Epistle  to  Dioguetus,  §  5,  where  it  is  said  of  Christiaus 
generally,  TrrGJ^fiSoutjr,  xai  tcXovti^ov6i  TtoXXovZ.  The  reference 
seems  to  be  to  vi.,  10  ;  but  instead  of  nrooxoi  the  writer  uses  the  verb 
which  occurs  in  viii.,  9.  C}-ril  of  Jerusalem  says,  6  8e.  7ti6rdi  dvrjp 
.     ,     .     iv  Ttevia  TtXovrel  (Cdiech.,  v.,  2). 


i66  SECOND  CORINTHIANS      viii.,  10-23. 

This  (viii.,  10)  :  that  is,  probably,  completing  the  collec- 
tion ;  for  if  it  meant  "giving  my  judgment  instead  of  a 
commandment,"  "  expedient  "  would  not  be  a  very  suitable 
expression.  They  had  anticipated  the  Macedonians,  not 
only  in  contributing  to  the  fund,  but  in  expressing  their 
willingness  to  do  so  ;  and  therefore  it  was  expedient  to  have 
no  further  delay. 

At  this  present  time  (viii.,  14),  implying  that  he  looked 
upon  the  distress  in  Jerusalem  as  temporary.  The  time 
might  come  when  their  relations  would  be  reversed. 

As  it  is  written  (viii.,  15). — The  quotation  is  from  Exodus 
xvi.,  18,  and  refers  to  the  collection  of  the  manna. 

Paul  now  leaves  his  exhortation,  in  order  to  recommend  Titus  and 
two  other  brethren  whom  he  was  sending  to  be  recipients  of  the 
fund  (viii.,  16-24). 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  who  these  brethren  were,  and 
the  numerous  conjectures  which  have  been  put  forward  are 
only  wasted  labour. 

He  accepted  our  exhortation  (viii.,  17). — This  points  back  to 
the  statement  of  z'.  6  ;  but  Titus  was  so  zealous  that  exhort- 
ation was  unnecessary. 

In  the  gospel  (viii.,  18). — This  has  been  understood  to  be  a 
reference  to  Luke's  Gospel ;  but  it  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  the  word  can  refer  only  to  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel. 

That  any  mail  should  blanie  us  (viii.,  20). — He  chose  to 
have  representatives  of  the  church  with  him,  so  that  there 
could  be  no  suspicion  of  misappropriation  in  connection  with 
so  large  a  sum. 

We  take  thought  for  things  honourable,  etc.  (viii.,  21 ). — 
This  verse  is  quoted,  with  slight  additions,  from  Proverbs 
iii.,  4,  in  the  lxx. 

Messengers  (viii.,  23). — The  word  "  apostles  "  should  have 
been  retained,  for  it  is  a  term  which  was  by  no  means 
limited  to  the  twelve  in  early  times. 


ix.,  3-8.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  167 

The  commendation  of  his  messengers  naturally  suggests  the 
object  of  their  mission.  It  was  indeed  superfluous  for  him  to  write 
about  that,  as  the  Corinthians  had  shown  their  readiness  so  long 
before.  Nevertheless  he  delicately  exhorts  them  to  have  every 
arrangement  quite  complete  before  his  own  arrival,  perhaps  with 
friends  from  Macedonia  (ix.,  1-5). 

In  this  respect  (ix.,  3). — His  boasting  of  them  covered  a 
wider  range  than  the  matter  of  the  collection  ;  on  that  point 
he  did  not  wish  it  to  be  proved  vain. 

Extortioyi  (ix.,  5),  properly  "  covetousness. "  If  the  sup- 
posed covetousness  were  on  the  part  of  Paul,  the  meaning 
might  be  fairly  represented  by  "  extortion."  But  I  think  it 
is  much  more  naturally  referred  to  the  Corinthians,  for 
otherwise  there  is  no  true  contrast.  The  Corinthians  might 
be  willing  to  bestow  "a  blessing"  (bounty),  and  yet  Paul 
might  be  covetous,  and  eager  to  extort  all  he  could.  The 
meaning,  then,  probably  is  that  they  should  be  willing  to 
bless  by  giving  all  they  could,  and  not  covetously  consider 
with  how  little  they  might  get  off. 

Finally  he  points  out  the  blessings  that  arise  from  cheerful  giv- 
ing :  in  the  providence  of  God  men  reap  as  they  sow,  and  such  acts 
of  kindness  awaken  thanksgiving  to  God,  and  create  a  mutual 
brotherly  affection  (ix.,  6-15). 

This  (ix.,  6),  without  any  verb  expressed,  calls  attention 
to  what  follows  ; — "  this  is  to  be  particularly  noted." 

Bountifully  (ix.,  6),  literally,  "  with  blessings"  ;  but  the 
connection  with  reaping  shows  that  they  are  not  spoken, 
but  bestowed  ;  hence  the  phrase  is  equivalent  to  "  bounti- 
fully." 

God  lovcth  a  cheerful  giver  (ix.,  7),  probably  suggested  by 
a  line  in  Prov.  xxii.,  8  a,  in  the  LXX,  "  God  blesses  a  cheer- 
ful man  and  a  giver." 

All  grace  (ix.,  8). — The  context  seems  to  prove  that  the 
word  is  used  here  of  outward  gifts  graciously  bestowed ;  but 


i68  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  ix.,  9-15. 

it  is  not  unsuitable  to  include  also  the  inward  grace  of  gen- 
erosity. 

As  it  is  written  (ix.,  9). — The  quotation  is  verbatim  from 
the  ivXX  of  Ps.  cxi.  (cxii.),  9. 

His  righteousness  (ix.,  9)  ;  that  is,  the  just  and  kindly- 
temper  which  leads  a  man  to  be  helpful  and  generous  in  the 
use  of  his  possessions. 

Seed  to  the  sower  arid  bread  for  food  (ix.,  lO). — These 
words  are  quoted  from  the  i,xx  of  Isaiah  Iv.,  10. 

The  fruits  of  your  righteousness  (ix.,  lO),  an  expression 
borrowed  from  Hosea  x.,  12,  in  the  lxx.  The  fruits  are  the 
results  of  their  generosity,  which  in  the  following  verses  are 
shown  to  be  not  only  the  supplying  of  the  wants  of  the 
need)^,  but  the  awakening  of  pious  and  brotherly  feeling. 
Thus  the  ministration  (ix.,  12)  not  only  served  its  immediate 
purpose,  but  superabounded,  and,  as  it  were,  poured  its 
overflow  through  other  channels. 

Liberality  of  yoViX  contributioii  (ix.,  13). — These  words  may 
be  translated  "  the  simplicity  of  your  communion,"  and  in 
favour  of  this  translation  it  is  urged  that  the  "  contribution  " 
was  not  made  "unto  all."  The  Revisers'  translation  seems 
best  suited  to  the  context,  and  the  Apostle  may  have  added 
the  words  "  unto  all  "  in  order  to  imply  that  the  generosity 
of  the  Corinthians  was  not  confined  to  this  particular  occa- 
sion. For  the  rendering  of  the  Greek  word  by  "  contribu- 
tion," see  Romans  xv.,  26. 

His  unspeakable  gift  (ix.,  1 5). — This  naturally  points  to 
the  blessings  of  which  Paul  has  just  spoken,  and  espe- 
cially the  drawing  together  of  the  Jewish  and  Gentile 
churches  through  the  ministrations  of  love,  and  it  seems 
rather  forced  to  refer  it  to  God's  gift  of  His  Son,  though  that 
is  indirectly  included  as  the  basis  of  every  Christian  blessing. 
The  words  form  a  suitable  close  to  this  portion  of  the  Epistle, 
and  may  remind  us  that  the  ability  and  the  will  to  give  are 
matters,  not  for  boasting,  but  for  thankfulness. 


X.,  I.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  169 

In  the  third  part  of  the  Epistle  Paul  defends  himself  against  his 
opponents,  and  threatens  the  impenitent  with  condign  punishment 
(x,,  i-xiii.,  10). 

This  part  of  the  Epistle  is  marked  by  a  very  unexpected 
change  of  tone,  which  has  given  rise  to  certain  hypotheses 
intended  to  explain  it.     These  are  briefly  noticed  in  the  In- 
troduction.    Here  we  may  observe  that  throughout  this  pas- 
sage Paul   defends  his   own    character   and  claims   against 
spiteful   enemies,   and   not    his  Gospel  against   an  adverse 
(judaising)  gospel.     In  this   respect  the   contrast  with  the 
first   two   chapters  of  Galatians   is   very  noticeable.     Here 
there  is  no  reference  to  the  I^aw,  and  the  fear  which  Paul 
entertains  is  not  lest  the  Corinthians  should  judaise,  but  lest 
they  should  be  corrupted  from  simplicity  and  purity  (xi.,  3). 
This  indeed  is  followed  (xi.,  4)  by  the  ironical  suggestion  that 
if  he  who  was  coming  preached  a  different  gospel,  it  might 
be  well  to  bear  with  him,  the  implication  being  that  in  fact 
he  would  preach  the  same  Gospel,  though  it  might  be  with 
subtle  interpretations  and  tricks  of  speech.     There  is  only 
one  verse  which  distinctly  proves  that  some  of  the  opponents 
were  of  Jewish  race  (xi.,  22).     Other   allusions   are   more 
suitable  to  Greeks,  who  set  store  on  philosophical  thought 
and  eloquence  of  expression,  and  were  far  more  inclined  to 
sensual  sin  than  the  Jews  (x.,  5,   10;  xi.,  3,  6;  xii.,  21). 
These  facts  seem  to  render  it  probable  that  Paul  is  now' deal- 
ing, not  with  an  estrangement  resting  on  doctrinal  differences, 
but  with  bitter  personal  manifestations  of  that  factious  spirit 
which  he  rebuked  in  the  opening  portion  of  his  First  Epistle. 
An  anti-Pauline  faction  may  very  well  have  included  Greeks 
as  well  as  Jews,  though  its  animosity  may  probably  have 
been  fomented  by  Jewish-Christian  visitors  who  claimed  to  be 
invested  with  a  higher  authority  than  Paul's. 

He  begins  with  words  of  gentle  pleading  that  he  may  not  have 
to  exercise  severity  when  he  comes  (x.,  1-6). 

/  Paul  myself  (x.,    l).— These  words  show  that   he   is 


I70  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  x.,  1-7. 

entering  on  strictly  personal  matters,  and  separate  him  from 
Timothy,  who  was  associated  with  him  in  the  composition 
of  the  letter. 

By  the  meekness  and  gentleness  of  Christ  (x.,  l),  an  appeal 
to  their  better  feelings.  They  should  be  gentle,  and  not 
make  it  necessary  for  him  to  be  more  severe  than  his  Master. 

In  your  presence  am  loidy  (x.,  l),  an  allusion  to  the  sneer 
at  his  bodily  weakness,  quoted  in  v.  10. 

Walked  according  to  the  flesh  (x.,  2)  ;  that  is,  ' '  governed 
my  conduct  by  low  and  worldly  motives."  No  doubt,  like 
other  mortals,  he  was  "  in  the  flesh,"  and  this  was  an  element 
of  weakness ;  but  his  armoury  was  spiritual,  and  therefore 
mighty,  and  would  be  sufficient  to  pull  down  whatever  was 
opposed  to  the  rule  of  Christ. 

When  your  obedience  shall  be  fulfilled  (x.,  6). — He  assumes 
that  the  church  as  a  whole  will  be  obedient ;  and  when  this 
result  has  been  secured,  then  he  will  be  ready  to  visit  every 
persistent  case  of  disobedience  with  due  punishment. 

After  this  introduction  of  the  subject  he  asserts  his  determination 
to  maintain  his  authority  by  an  appeal  to  plain  facts  (x.,  7-1 1). 

Ye  look  at  the  things  that  are  before  your  face  (x.,  7). — The 
sense  apparently  is, — you  judge  men  by  things  that  are  out- 
ward and  obvious  :  very  well  ;  then  look  at  the  fruits  of  my 
ministry,  which  are  quite  as  plain  as  any  advantages  of 
which  my  adversaries  can  boast.  The  meaning  is  substan- 
tially the  same  if  we  make  tlie  clause  interrogative,  or  if  we 
treat  the  verb  as  an  imperative.  In  the  latter  case  he  appeals 
to  them  to  look  at  the  evident  nature  and  results  of  his 
labours. 

Trusteth  in  himself  that  he  is  Christ's  (x.,  7)- — This  is 
clearly  a  boast  on  the  part  of  the  opponents,  and  must  imply 
something  more  than  merely  being  a  Christian.  It  must  be 
a  claim  to  have  a  closer  connection  with  Christ,  and  there- 
fore a  higher  authority,  than   belonged  to  Paul.     This  is 


X.,  8-12.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  171 

proved  b)^  the  connection  with  the  next  verse,  which,  through 
its  "for,"  gives  a  reason  for  the  assertion  which  is  here 
made. 

I  shall  not  be  put  to  shame  (x.,  8),  because  all  my  glorjang 
will  be  borne  out  by  facts.  A  spurious  authority  would  not 
have  established  so  many  churches. 

That  I  may  7iot  seevi  as  if  I  would  terrify  you  (x.,  9). — The 
connection  of  this  verse  is  by  no  means  apparent,  and  must  be 
found  in  some  suppressed  thought :  I  will  not  say  too  much 
of  my  authority,  and  such  authority  as  I  possess  was  given 
me,  not  to  injure  you,  but  to  build  j^ou  up.  There  is  of 
course  an  allusion  to  the  sneer  of  his  enemies  :  he  is  very 
valiant  at  a  distance,  and  frightens  you  with  letters  ;  but 
when  he  actually  comes  he  turns  out  to  be  a  poor  creature. 

His  bodily  presence  is  weak  (x.,  lO). — We  do  not  know  in 
what  this  weakness  consisted  ;  but  it  is  clear  that  Paul  was 
not  the  stalwart  orator  of  popular  imagination.  We  can 
readily  suppose  that  his  public  speaking  lent  itself  to  this 
gibe  at  a  time  when  oratory  was  studied  with  as  much  care 
as  professional  singing  is  among  us,  and  when  men  cared 
more  for  outward  grace  and  finish  than  for  spiritual  insight 
and  depth  of  conviction  ;  and  yet,  if  his  modulation  violated 
the  rules  of  the  rhetoricians,  his  tones  may  have  reached  far 
into  the  sanctuary  of  hearts  that  were  prepared. 

Such  are  we  also  in  deed  (x.,  II). — Whatever  differences 
there  might  be  in  the  irapressiveness  of  his  letters  and  his 
speech,  his  conduct  was  always  directed  by  the  same 
principles. 

A  rather  obscure  passage  follows,  of  which  the  general  purport  is 
that  he  glories  only  in  what  he  has  himself  accomplished,  and  not 
(like  some)  in  other  men's  labours  (x.,  12-18). 

We  are  not  bold  (x.,  12)  ;  ironically, — "  we  do  not  venture 
to  do  such  a  thing."  It  is  probable  that  the  men  whom 
Paul  treats  so  contemptuously  were  really  very  vain  and 
paltry.     In  great  religious  movements  the  leaders  are  often 


172  SECOND  CORINTHIANS         x.,  12-16. 

compelled  to  assert  themselves  pretty  peremptorily,  in  order 
that  their  work  may  not  be  wrecked  by  conceited  and  incap- 
able upstarts.  These  fussy  creatures  sometimes  make  a 
strong,  though  temporary,  impression  ;  and  it  is  only  to  a 
later  generation  that  their  relative  magnitude  becomes  clear. 

Btit  they  themselves^  etc.  (x.,  12). — The  words  as  they  stand 
give  a  good  sense.  The  antithesis  is  with  the  sense  implied 
in  the  previous  clause :  they  seem  to  be  very  fine  fellows  ; 
but  shutting  themselves  up  in  a  clique  given  to  mutual  ad- 
miration, and  having  no  standard  beyond  themselves,  they 
do  not  understand  the  real  state  of  the  case.  Some,  contend- 
ing that  an  antithesis  containing  Paul's  mode  of  judgment 
is  required,  omit  the  words  "are  without  understanding. 
But  we  "  ;  and  then  we  must  translate  in  the  first  person, 
the  sense  being, — we  will  not  compare  ourselves  with  some, 
but,  measuring  our  condition  by  our  ideal,  we  will  not  glory 
beyond  our  measure.  The  change  is  not  necessary,  and  has 
far  too  little  support  in  the  ancient  authorities  to  be  safely 
adopted. 

Beyond  onr  measji re  (x.,  13). — "Our"'  is  inserted  by  the 
translators.  The  Greek  rather  suggests,  "  we  will  not  go  off 
into  unmeasured  boasting,"  li^e  the  vain  men  who  have  no 
standard  with  which  to  compare  themselves. 

Province  (x.,  13). — This  is  an  interpretation,  not  a  transla- 
tion. The  Greek  means  the  rule  or  line  with  which  the 
measure  is  taken. 

Ill  the  Gospel  of  Christ  (x.,  14) ;  that  is,  in  preaching  the 
Gospel.  It  is  implied  that  his  was  the  preaching  which  first 
reached  them. 

In  other  nien's  labours  (x.,  15),  iti  another' s  province  (x., 
16).— Paul  implies  that  his  opponents  were  intruding  on  his 
ground,  where  they  could  have  made  no  impression  unless 
he  had  been  there  before  them.  For  his  own  part  he  was 
anxious  not  to  interfere  with  other  men,  but  to  seek  always 
untrodden  fields. 


X.,  l7-xi.,  4.     SECOND  CORINTHIANS  173 

He  that  glorieth,  etc.  (x.,  17),  a  saying  quoted  also  in  i 
Cor.  i.,  31.  It  is  a  motto  which  he  tried  to  make  the  rule  of 
his  life. 

He  now  enters  on  the  glorying  itself;  and  first,  in  a  few  intro- 
ductory verses,  states  his  reason  for  descending  to  this  apparent 
folly.     It  was  due,  not  to  pride  in  himself,  but  to  zeal  for  them  (xi., 

1-3). 

The  division  of  the  paragraphs  is  uncertain  ;  but  I  think 
the  comparison  of  himself  with  the  false  teachers  begins 
with  V.  4. 

Nay  indeed  bear  with  me  (xi.,  l). — I  think  the  marginal 
translation  does  more  justice  to  the  Greek  construction.  It 
also  suits  the  sense  :  in  asking  for  their  forbearance  he  does 
not  forget  that  they  already  bear  with  him,  though  he  is 
going  to  try  their  patience  a  little  further.  The  imperative, 
on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  feeble  repetition  of  the  same  sense. 

One  husbatid  (xi.,  2). — "  One  "  is  specified  in  order  to  em- 
phasise the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  attachment  which 
they  ought  to  feel.  All  their  love  ought  to  go  to  one,  and 
suffer  no  distraction. 

As  the  serpent  beguiled  Eve  (xi.,  3). — The  comparison  may 
seem  a  little  far-fetched  ;  but  as  Christ  was  the  second  Adam, 
the  Church  might  be  regarded  as  standing  to  him  in  the  re- 
lation of  Eve.  There  may  possibly  be  an  allusion  to  the 
rabbinical  notion  that  Eve  was  seduced  into  idolatry. 

The  first  point  in  his  boasting  is  that  he  has  as  full  a  knowledge 
of  the  Gospel  as  his  rivals  (xi.,  4-6). 

For  (xi.,  4). — With  the  connection  which  we  have  sug- 
gested this  word  does  not  introdupe  the  reason  for  z^.  3  :  I 
am  afraid  you  may  be  corrupted,  for  these  men  are  really 
preaching  another  Jesus.  It  refers  rather  to  the  general  im- 
plication of  the  previous  passage  :  I  have  a  better  claim  upon 
you  than  my  opponents,  for,  first,  I  have  as  much  knowledge 
as  they. 

He  that  cometh  (xi.,  4),  the  coming  man,  whoever  he  may 


174  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  xi.,  5,  6. 

be.  Paul  need  not  be  referring  to  any  particular  individual  ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  he  has  in  mind,  not  members  of  the  church' 
itself,  but  one  or  more  visitors  from  abroad,  who  were  extolled 
by  their  partisans  for  their  eloquence  and  knowledge.  In 
what  follows  it  is  disputed  whether  Paul  is  charging  these 
men  with  really  preaching  another  Jesus  or  is  ironically 
making  an  impossible  supposition.  We  may  to  some  ex- 
tent combine  these  views  by  supposing  that  they  boasted  of 
giving  a  truer  representation  of  Jesus,  and  preaching  a  far 
finer  gospel  than  Paul,  but  that  Paul  treated  this  as  mere 
pretence.  The  sense  may  then  be  given  thus  : — If  you  find 
that  these  men  really  do  as  they  say,  it  is  all  very  well  to  put 
up  with  them  ;  but  in  fact  their  claim  is  baseless,  for  my 
knowledge  {gnosis)  is  as  good  as  theirs.  If,  however,  Paul 
is  stating  what  he  believed  to  be  a  fact,  the  connection  is  as 
follows  : — I  am  afraid  you  may  be  corrupted  ;  for  if  the  com- 
ing man  preach  (as  he  does)  a  gospel  different  from  mine, 
you  bear  with  him  splendidly.  There  is  a  various  reading 
at  the  end  of  the  verse,  which  is  supported  by  most  of  our 
authorities,  though  one  manuscript  of  the  greatest  weight 
gives  the  reading  in  the  text.  With  the  variation  the  sense 
would  seem  to  be  : — If  the  man  preaches  another  Jesus  (which 
is  impossible),  you  would  do  well  enough  in  bearing  with  him. 

The  very  chiefest  Apostles  (xi.,  5)- — I  prefer  the  translation 
in  the  margin  ;  for  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  phrase 
is  a  sarcastic  description  of  the  false  teachers,  and  contains 
no  reference  to  the  Twelve.  The  latter,  to  say  the  least, 
would  be  as  "  rude  in  speech  "  as  himself. 

Rude  in  speech  (xi.,  6). — This  phrase,  in  the  original,  only 
implies  that  he  was  not  a  professional  speaker.  For  this  he 
cared  little  ;  for  he  did  not  want  to  win  applause,  but  to  melt 
the  heart.  The  claim,  however,  to  possess  a  higher  gnosis 
was  a  different  thing,  and  this  he  could  not  admit.  He  had 
indeed  no  wish  to  indulge  in  speculations  which  corrupted 
the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel ;  but  he  knew  the  Gospel  in  all 


xi.,  7-12.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  175 

its  height  and  depth,  and  made  it  manifest  in  every  particular, 
and  among  all,  reserving  no  esoteric  secrets. 

As  a  second  point  in  his  boasting  he  dwells  on  the  fact  that  he 
preached  the  Gospel  gratis  (xi.,  7-15). 

Did  I  commit  a  si?i  (xi.,  7). — This  is  partly  ironical,  but 
partly  also  a  reference  to  the  charge  of  not  venturing  to  claim 
his  apostolic  rights,  or  of  being  cold  and  distrustful  towards 
the  Corinthians  in  not  choosing  to  do  so  (see  v.  11). 

/  robbed  [better,  despoiled'\  other  churches  (xi.,  8),  namely, 
those  in  Macedonia.  See  Phil,  iv.,  15,  where  the  bounty  is 
attributed  to  the  church  at  Philippi  alone.  The  plural  here 
may  be  rhetorical  ;  or  possibly  the  Philippians  alone  con- 
tributed on  his  departure  from  Macedonia,  but  "  the  breth- 
ren ' '  afterwards  brought  contributions  from  other  churches 
as  well. 

When  I  was preseyit  with  you  (xi.,  9). — Two  occasions  are 
specified.  He  had  brought  supplies  with  him  with  a  view  to 
his  ministry  ;  afterwards,  during  his  residence  in  Corinth,  his 
wants  were  supplied  from  Macedonia.  "The  brethren  ' '  were 
either  Silvanus  and  Timothy  or  Macedonian  visitors,  whom 
the  Corinthians  would  remember. 

That  I  may  cut  off  occasion  (xi.,  12). — The  interpretation 
of  this  verse  is  very  uncertain.  Two  facts,  however,  are 
pretty  clear,  and  these  must  control  our  judgment.  The 
false  teachers  were  willing  to  receive  support  from  the 
churches  ;  for  Paul  excepts  only  himself  and  Barnabas  from 
what  he  regards  as  an  established  right  of  maintenance  (i 
Cor.  ix.,  6  sqq.).  Secondly,  they  were  anxious  to  have  the 
appearance  of  real  Apostles  (xi.,  •  13-15).  Accordingly, 
"  that  wherein  they  glory  "  is  most  probably  their  assumed 
apostleship ;  and  the  "occasion"  is  (less  certainly)  the 
opportunity  of  making  a  plausible  comparison  of  themselves 
with  genuine  Apostles.  If  this  be  correct  the  final  clause 
may  be  taken  as  a  definition  of  the  "  occasion  "  ; — they  seek 
an  occasion,  in  their  apostolic  pretensions,  of  placing  them- 


176  SECOXD  CORINTHIANS        xi.,  13-17. 

selves  on  an  equality  with  Paul ;  and  this  they  could  not 
have  so  long  as  Paul's  labour  was  entirely  without  emolu- 
ment. If  this  connection  be  not  accepted,  we  may  perhaps 
regard  the  last  clause  as  a  challenge  from  Paul  to  become  as 
disinterested  as  himself ;  for  we  cannot  well  regard  it  as  ex- 
pressing his  real  purpose.  Even  a  pretended  following  of 
his  disinterestedness  would  only  have  served  to  increase 
their  repute.  Some  commentators  think  that  this  was  the 
course  which  they  were  actually  pursuing,  making  public 
professions  of  being  completely  disinterested,  but  receiving 
gifts  in  a  private  and  underhand  way.  This  does  not  seem 
probable. 

Fashio7ii7ig  {-xx.y  13)  ;  better,  "transforming."  It  is  un- 
fortunate that  we  do  not  know  who  or  what  sort  of  men  these 
were.  Simply  to  say  that  they  were  Judaisers  may  be  ex- 
ceedingly unjust  to  Paul,  who  in  that  case  would  be  guilty 
of  pouring  abuse  upon  serious,  if  narrow-minded,  opponents, 
instead  of  meeting  them  in  fair  argument.  But  there  is  no 
reason  for  this  assumption.  They  were  much  more  probably 
the  parasites  who  bring  danger  and  disgrace  on  new  move- 
ments, and  belonged  to  the  class  that  is  described  in  Rom. 
xvi.,  17-20. 

Satan  fashioneth  himself  {■x.l.y  14). — There  is  probably  no 
reference  to  any  particular  incident,  but  only  an  allusion  to 
the  general  belief  that  Satan  sought  in  this  way  to  gain 
his  ends. 

Before  proceeding  to  details  in  his  own  life  which  were  a  subject 
for  glorying  he  once  more  excuses  himself  for  descending  to  such 
foolishness  as  boasting  (xi.,  16-21). 

/  say  again  (xi.,  16). — The  reference  must  be  to  v.  i,  al- 
though the  form  of  expression  is  changed.  He  is  not  a  fool ; 
but  he  craves  at  least  as  much  attention  as  would  be  granted 
to  a  fool.  It  is  only  in  the  assumed  character  of  a  fool,  and 
not  as  one  under  the  direction  of  the  I,ord,  that  he  indulges 
in  boasting  (xi.,  17). 


xi.,  18-22.        SECOND  CORINTHIANS  177 

Glory  after  the  flesh  (xi.,  18) ;  that  is,  boast  of  mere  out- 
ward distinctions,  such  as  their  descent  from  Abraham.  To 
boast  of  such  things  Paul  regarded  as  sheer  folly. 

Being  wise  yourselves  (xi.,  19)  :  strongly  ironical  ;  in  the 
calmness  of  their  superior  wisdom  they  are  ready  to  bear  not 
only  foil)',  but  violence. 

If  he  bringeth  you  into  bondage  (xi.,  20). — Even  here  the 
reference  is  to  the  grand  airs  and  overbearing  conduct  of  the 
men  who  are  attacked,  and  not  to  the  error  of  their  teaching. 
The  "  bondage  "  might  indeed  be  to  the  law  ;  but  the  law  is 
not  mentioned  throughout,  and  bondage  to  the  imperious 
demands  of  the  men  themselves  is  probably  what  is  in- 
tended. 

I  speak  by  way  of  disparagement,  as  thoiigh  zve  had  been  iceak 
(xi.,  21). — It  is  difficult  to  extract  any  meaning  from  this 
translation,  and  the  Greek  is  also  obscure.  Two  things  are 
plain  in  the  original.  The  word  translated  "  I  speak"  re- 
quires an  object,  and  would  be  better  rendered  by  "  I  say  "  ; 
and  the  second  clause  is  so  expressed  as  to  indicate,  not 
a  fact,  but  someone's  (here  the  Corinthians')  conception  of 
a  fact.  The  passage  may  then  be  understood  as  purely 
ironical,  thus  :  I  say  to  my  own  disparagement  that  (as 
you  suppose)  I  was  too  weak  to  do  things  of  that  sort.  Or 
the  words  may  refer  to  the  previous  verse  :  You  bear  with 
such  men  (I  say  so  to  your  disparagement)  on  the  ground 
that  I  [whom  you  ought  naturally  to  have  obeyed]  was  weak 
and  insignificant. 

He  now  proceeds  to  enumerate  the  various  circumstances  in  his 
history  which  might  form  a  subject  for  boasting  (xi.,  22-xii.,  10), 

Hebrews,  etc.  (xi.,  22). — The  word  "Hebrews"  is  here 
used  in  its  widest  national  sen.se,  not,  as  sometimes,  to  denote 
Palestinian  as  distingui.shed  from  Hellenistic.  "  Israelite  " 
is  the  theocratic,  and  therefore  a  higher,  designation.  "  The 
seed  of  Abraham"  points  out  the  heirs  of  the  Messianic 
promises.     The  term  is  extended  by  Paul  to  the  believing 


178  SECOND  CORINTHIANS        xi.,  23-30. 

Gentiles  (Gal.  iii.,  29  ;  Rom.  iv.,  16),  but  is  here  confined  to 
literal  descent. 

Are  they  ministers  of  Christ?  (xi.,  23). — It  is  not  denied 
that  they  are  really  such,  even  though  their  labours  were  not 
equal  to  Paul's.  We  need  not  identify  these  with  the 
"  false  Apostles  "  of  v.  13.  In  the  number  of  Paul's  oppo- 
nents there  may  have  been  men  of  various  character,  and  he 
may  now  be  referring  to  the  more  respectable  among  them. 
In  the  interesting  list  of  his  experiences  which  follows  there 
are  several  particulars  which  are  not  recorded  in  Acts,  show- 
ing how  very  imperfect  the  historian's  narrative  is. 

Forty  stripes  save  one  (xi.,  24). — This  punishment  was  in- 
flicted by  the  local  Jewish  courts,  to  which  the  Romans  al- 
lowed a  certain  jurisdiction  over  their  own  community. 
According  to  Deut.  xxv.,  3,  an  offender  might  receive  forty 
stripes,  but  that  was  the  extreme  limit.  As  a  precaution, 
therefore,  lest  the  number  should  be  inadvertently  exceeded, 
only  thirty-nine  were  inflicted. 

Beaten  with  rods  (xi.,  25),  by  the  order  of  Roman  magis- 
trates. It  was  against  the  law  to  scourge  a  Roman  citizen  ; 
but  several  instances  are  cited  in  which  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizens  were  disregarded. 

Perils  among  false  brethren  (xi.,  26),  such  as  are  alluded 
to  in  Gal.  ii.,  4.  Considering  the  nature  of  religious  bigotry, 
we  can  believe  that  some  of  these  were  willing  to  use  vio- 
lence against  Paul.  However  shocking  such  a  supposition 
may  be,  it  certainly  seems  implied  in  the  present  passage. 

Who  is  zveak,  and  I  a^n  not  zveakf  (xi.,  29). — "  Weak  " 
must  be  used  here  in  quite  a  general  sense.  The  verse  ex- 
presses Paul's  profound  sympathy,  which  in  itself  was  a 
drain  upon  his  feelings.  He  was  consumed  in  the  failings 
and  struggles  of  otlier  men. 

/  will  glory  of  the  things  that  concern  my  weakness  (xi., 
30). — As  there  is  no  mark  of  transition  to  a  fresh  subject,  the 
connection    may    perhaps  be  thus  supplied  :  Since   I  must 


xi.,  32-xii.,  2.     SECOND  CORINTHIANS  179 

boast,  I  will  boast  of  the  very  weakness  of  body  which  is 
made  a  reproach  against  me  ;  for  it  is  due  to  the  hardships 
which  I  have  undergone,  to  the  intensity  of  my  feelings,  yea 
to  the  visions  which  have  been  vouchsafed  to  me,  and  on  this 
very  weakness  my  spiritual  power  depends.  He  is  going  to 
speak  of  his  holiest  experiences,  and  hence  the  solemn  as- 
severation with  which  he  begins,  and  which  we  must  not 
limit  to  the  incident  in  Damascus.  That  incident,  however, 
may  have  made  a  deep  impression  upon  him,  for  not  onl}- 
was  his  life  in  the  greatest  danger,  but  it  was  his  first  expe- 
rience of  being  the  persecuted  instead  of  the  persecutor.  It 
was  an  instance  of  his  weakness,  having  to  slink  away  like 
a  hunted  animal  ;  and  yet  it  was  something  to  boast  of  that 
he  dared  to  encounter  such  risks.  This  explanation  attempts 
to  remove  the  chief  difl5culties  of  the  passage.  Some,  how- 
ever, are  so  impressed  with  the  irrelevancy  of  the  strong 
asseveration  in  z^.  31,  when  applied  to  the  event  at  Damas- 
cus, that  they  regard  the  latter  as  interpolated,  and  so  bring 
V.  31  into  immediate  connection  with  the  second  part  of  xii., 
I,  or  even  with  xii.,  2.  This  undoubtedly  would  remove  a 
difiiculty  ;  and  the  variety  of  reading  in  xii.,  i  is  thought 
to  give  it  additional  plausibility.  But  the  interpolation 
would  be  very  difficult  to  explain  ;  and  Paul's  st}-le,  espe- 
cially when  he  writes  under  strong  feeling,  is  not  so  finished 
and  connected  as  to  call  for  these  heroic  remedies. 

In  Damasacs  (xi.,  32). — For  the  event  see  Acts  ix.,  23-25. 
Visions  and  revelations  of  the  Loi'd  (xii.,  I);  that  is, 
granted  by,  or  proceeding  from,  the  Lord.  These  are  men- 
tioned, not  as  subjects  of  boasting,' but  as  the  reason  for  the 
"  thorn  in  the  flesh." 

I  know  a  man  in  Christ  (xii.,  2). — It  is  clear,  in  spite  of  v. 
5,  that  he  means  himself.  He  adopts  this  form  of  expres- 
sion in  order  to  disclaim  all  personal  merit.  The  phrase  "  in 
Christ,"  implying  a  spiritual  union  with  him,  is  richer  in 
meaning  than  "  a  disciple  of  Christ  "  or  "a  Christian." 


i8o  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  xii.,  2-7. 

Fourteeji  years  ago  (xii.,  2). — This,  according  to  the  usual 
chronology,  gives  the  year  43  or  44.  The  date  shows  that 
Paul  refers  to  a  single  occasion. 

/;/  the  body  .  .  .  out  of  the  body  (xii.,  2). — Whether 
Paul  meant  this  quite  literally  may  perhaps  be  doubted.  It 
implies  that  he  was  in  an  ecstatic  condition,  and  unconscious 
of  his  bodily  surroundings.  If  he  meant  it  literally,  it  shows 
his  acceptance  of  the  belief  that  the  soul  could  wander  away 
for  a  time  from  the  body,  and  then  return. 

The  third  heaven  (xii.,  2). — The  prevailing  belief  in  seven 
heavens  was  founded  on  astronomical  appearances,  a  sphere 
being  assumed  for  each  of  the  seven  planets.  These  heavens, 
or  some  of  them,  were  assigned,  in  JewivSh  speculation,  to 
various  orders  of  spirits.  In  the  curious  Book  of  the  Secrets 
of  Enoch  paradise  is  placed  in  the  third  heaven,  and  with 
this  view  the  present  passage  seems  to  agree.' 

Unspeakable  words  (xii.,  4)  ;  that  is,  too  deep  and  holy  for 
human  utterance, — an  expression  derived  perhaps  from  the 
Greek  mysteries. 

I  shall  not  be  foolish  (xii.,  6). — The  word  "  foolish  "  is  now 
used  without  irony.  If  he  did  boast  of  his  revelations,  he 
would  speak  only  the  sober  truth  ;  but  his  object  was  to 
boast  of  his  weaknesses,  and  he  wished  to  be  judged,  not  by 
these  exalted  experiences,  which  were  in  the  privacy  of  his 
own  soul,  but  b)^  what  men  could  see  and  hear  for  themselves. 

That  I  should  not  be  exalted  (xii.,  7)- — Even  Paul  required 
to  be  kept  humble,  and  painfully  reminded  that  all  spiritual 
power  was  a  gift  of  grace. 

There  was  given  to  me  (xii.,  7)- — Clearly  not  by  Satan,  who 
is  here  regarded  as  an  agent  employed  to  bring  about  a  puri- 
fying adversity. 

'  See  chapters  viii.  and  ix.,  and  Mr.  Charles'  interesting  review  of 
the  ancient  belief,  in  the  Introduction,  pp.  xxix.  sqq.  :  The  Book  of 
the  Secrets  of  Enoch,  translated  and  edited  by  Morfill  and  Charles, 
Oxford,  1896. 


xii.,  7-II.         SECOND  CORINTHIANS  i8i 

A  thorn  in  the  flesh  (xii.,  7)- — This  apparentl}'  refers  to 
some  painful  malady,  which  attacked  him  in  the  times  of  his 
greatest  spiritual  exaltation.  Whether  or  not  it  was  epi- 
lepsy, it  was  probably  induced  by  the  nervous  exhaustion 
following  on  his  spiritual  transports.  It  seems  to  have  been 
distressing,  and  even  repellent,  to  tho.se  who  witnessed  it 
(see  Gal.  iv.,  13,  14).  With  some  other  saints,  too,  the  fire 
of  the  spirit  has  consumed  the  bodilj^  strength,  and  a  force 
that  has  shaken  the  souls  of  men  has  issued  from  a  feeble 
frame. 

I  besought  the  Lord  thrice  (xii.,  8). — "  The  Lord  "  is  proved 
by  the  next  verse  to  be  Christ.  As  the  number  of  times 
when  he  made  his  petition  is  stated,  he  probably  refers  to 
particular  occasions  of  spiritual  vision,  when,  in  the  utmost 
recesses  of  his  soul,  he  exchanged  words  with  his  heavenl}^ 
Guide.  The  third  time  the  answer  came,  and  remained,  for 
him  and  for  others,  as  an  abiding  truth. 

My  power  is  made  perfect  in  weakness  (xii.,  9),  for  then 
there  is  nothing  but  the  spiritual  power,  nothing  to  attract 
false  admiration,  no  distraction  of  worldly  gifts  and  graces. 
And  in  the  Apostle  himself  all  vain  ambitions  are  killed,  and 
he  can  only  cling  in  trust  to  that  power  without  which  he 
must  .sink  back  into  the  ranks  of  ordinary  and  weak 
humanity. 

Again  the  tone  changes,  and  he  once  more  apologises  for  his 
boasting,  reminding  them  that  the  signs  of  an  Apostle  had  attended 
him,  and  he  had  taken  no  advantage  of  the  disciples  (xii.,  11-18). 

I  ought  to  have  been  commended  of  you  (xii.,  II). — "  I  "  is 
emphatic  in  the  Greek,  in  antithesis  to  "  the  superlative 
Apostles," — a  further  proof  that  these  "  Apostles"  were  the 
pretenders  at  Corinth,  and  not  the  Twelve. 

Though  I  am  nothing  (xii.,  II). — This  is  probably  not 
ironical,  but  a  genuine  expression  of  his  feeling, — nothing 
apart  from  him  who  u.sed  him  as  an  instrument. 


i82  SECOND  CORINTHIANS      xii.,  12-14. 

Signs  and  wo7iders  and  mighty  zvorks  (xii.,  12). — These 
words  refer  to  the  same  class  of  phenomena,  but  describe 
them  under  different  aspects.  The  first  regards  them  as  evi- 
dences of  the  Divine  presence  ;  the  second  refers  to  their 
extraordinary  character ;  and  the  third  traces  them  to  their 
source  in  superhuman  power.  Some  conmientators,  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  this  testimony,  treat  them  as  an  interpolation  ; 
and  some  reject  with  them  the  whole  verse,  together  with  the 
end  of  the  last  verse.  This,  however,  is  mere  arbitrary 
hypothesis.  Paul  himself,  no  doubt,  may  have  thought 
there  were  higher  evidences  of  his  apostleship  than  these 
outward  and  surprising  tokens  ;  and  still  he  might  not  scru- 
ple to  appeal  to  them  in  reply  to  his  adversaries,  and  might 
even  have  been  perplexed  if  others  had  them  while  he  had 
not.  Elsewhere  he  thanks  God  that  he  speaks  with  tongues 
(i  Cor.  xiv.,  18).  He  refers  to  "  gifts  of  healings  "  as  well 
known  in  the  Church  (i  Cor.  xii.,  9);  and  in  one  of  the 
most  certainly  attested  narratives  in  Acts  (xxviii.,  7-9)  we 
are  assured  that  Paul  himself  had  this  gift.  It  does  not  be- 
long to  a  commentary  to  discuss  the  nature  and  credibility 
of  these  events.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  similar  phenomena 
are  guaranteed  by  strong  evidence  at  various  periods,  and 
phj'siologists  are  not  prepared  to  fix  precisely  the  limits 
where  the  emotions  of  the  mind  cease  to  affect,  for  good  01 
ill,  the  condition  of  the  body. 

I  myself  {yi\\.^  13). — The  implied  contrast  is  not  with  his 
companions,  who  followed  the  same  rule  (xii.,  18).  It  must 
therefore  be  with  "  signs  of  an  Apostle  "  :  these  I  wrought 
among  j'ou,  but  was  not  myself  a  burden  to  you. 

This  is  the  third  time  I  am  ready  to  come  to  you  (xii.,  14). — 
The  plain  meaning  of  these  words  is  that  Paul  was  about  to 
pa}^  a  third  visit.  To  evade  this  by  laying  the  emphasis  on 
"  ready  "  gives  a  very  unnatural  turn  to  the  passage.  If  he 
had  been  ready  fifty  times,  it  would  be  nothing  to  the  pur- 
pose ;  for  the  point  is  that  in  his  coming  visit  he  will  follow 


xii.,  14-20.        SECOND  CORINTHIANS  183 

the  same  rule  which  he  had  already  observed  (on  two  pre- 
vious occasions). 

Lay  up  (xii.,  14),  or,  to  give  the  meaning  more  fully,  "  lay 
up  treasure."  Paul  regards  himself  as  the  father  of  the 
cliurch. 

If  I  love  you  more  abiuidantly  (xii.,  15),  than  I  do  other 
churches,  as  I  have  shown  by  not  making  myself  a  burden  to 
you. 

I  caught  you  with  guile  (xii.,  16). — Such  an  insinuation, 
we  must  suppose,  was  actually  made.  It  can,  however, 
hardly  refer  to  a  misappropriation  of  the  collection  ;  for  we 
have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  of  this  was  yet  in  the 
hands  of  Paul  or  his  companions,  and  a  charge  of  theft 
would  be  treated  with  greater  indignation.  The  suggestion 
rather  is  that  Paul's  messengers  not  onl}-  lived  at  the  cost 
of  the  community,  but  exacted,  or  at  all  events  received, 
gifts  which  they  handed  over  to  Paul. 

I  exhorted  Titus  (xii.,  18). — It  is  obvious  from  what  follows 
that  this  is  not  the  epistolarj'  past  tense,  as  in  viii.,  6,  but 
refers  to  a  visit  which  had  been  already  paid. 

By  the  same  spirit  (xii.,  18). — I  think,  from  the  tenor  of 
the  passage,  the  reference  is  not  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  to  the 
temper  of  the  mind  :  the  conduct  of  Titus  was  animated  by 
the  same  spirit  as  Paul's  own.  It  is  implied  that  Titus,  like 
Paul,  chose  to  be  no  burden  to  the  church.  "The  brother  " 
with  him  is  unknown. 

The  defence  is  now  at  an  end.  Was  it  real  boasting?  Was  he 
trying  to  excuse  himself  to  the  Corinthians  .?  No,  he  had  been 
speaking  with  the  deepest  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  good  of 
the  community,  lest,  when  he  came,  he  should  have  to  exercise  his 
authority  in  a  way  that  would  be  painful  both  to  him  and  to  them 
(xii.,  19-xiii.,  10). 

Strife,  jealousy,  etc,  (xii.,  20). — Observe,  he  dwells  solely 
on  moral  faults,  and  says  not  a  word  about  false  doctrine  or 
subjection  to  the  law.     The  faults  he  attacks  are  pre-emi- 


1 84  SECOND  CORINTHIANS    xii.,  2i-xiii.,  2. 

nently  the  faults  of  the  Greeks,  a  factious  and  jealous  temper, 
and  sensuality. 

Should  humble  jne  before  you,  and  I  should  moum  (xii.,  2l), 
—  "Humble,"  because  he  had  not  sufficient  spiritual  power 
to  raise  them  above  such  sins;  "mourn,"  because  no  one 
who  loves  righteousness  can  have  a  deeper  sorrow  than 
springs  from  the  guilt  of  those  whom  he  loves. 

Many  of  them  that  have  sinned  (xii.,  2l). — "  Many,"  not 
"  all,"  because  he  might  hope  that  some  would  repent  when 
he  personally  appealed  to  them. 

This  is  the  third  time  I  atn  coming  to  you  (xiii.,  l). — The 
natural  meaning  of  this  statement  is  that  he  had  already  paid 
two  visits  to  Corinth.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  this  plain  testi- 
mony it  has  been  twisted  into  the  meaning.  This  is  the  third 
time  I  am  thinking  of  coming  to  you.  Paul  may  not  have 
been  skilled  in  the  arts  of  rhetoric  ;  but  he  was  not  likely  to 
expose  himself  so  needlessly  to  the  obvious  rejoinder  that 
he  was  always  making  grand  plans,  and  never  had  the  cour- 
age to  carry  them  out. 

At  the  mouth  of  two  or  three  witnesses  (xiii.,  l),  conform- 
ably to  the  law  in  Deut.  xix.,  15.  This  has  been  strangely 
interpreted  as  figurative,  the  vatnesses  being  his  two  or  three 
visits,  or  things  repeated  two  or  three  times  in  his  letters. 
It  is  clear  that  Paul  intends  to  act  as  a  judge  over  the  mem- 
bers of  the  church,  and  of  course  he  would  not  do  so  without 
having  the  facts  properly  established.  We  must  take  note 
of  this  paramount  authority  which  he  claimed.  Great  re- 
formers are  often  compelled  to  exercise  a  little  judicious 
despotism. 

I  have  said  beforehand  (xiii.,  2). — The  obvious  meaning  is 
that  he  had  actually  said  this  when  he  was  present  with  them 
during  his  second  visit,  and  he  now  repeats  it  in  his  absence. 
This  is  evaded  by  translating,  "as  though  I  were  present 
the  second  time,"  or  by  connecting  "  the  second  time  "  with 
"  I  say  beforehand."     The  accumulation  of  forced  iuterpre- 


xiii.,  2-5.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  185 

tations  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  unrecorded  visit  adds  to 
their  improbability  when  taken  one  b^^  one. 

T/te?)i  thai  have  sinned  heretofore  (xiii.,  2). — The  Greek  is 
simply  "  sinned  before,"  so  that  "  before  the  second  visit  " 
may  be  meant  ;  and  then  "  all  the  rest  "  may  refer  to  those 
who  have  sinned  since,  or  who  may  sin  before  Paul's 
arrival. 

A  proof  of  Christ  (xiii.,  3). — The  sense  seems  to  be  that 
Paul's  vigour  in  punishing  will  be  an  evidence  of  the  power 
of  Christ,  whose  word  rather  than  his  own  the  Apostle  is 
uttering.  Christ  is  not  weak,  but  is  powerful  amongst  them 
for  the  infliction  of  chastisement. 

He  was  crucified  through  weakness  (xiii.,  4). — I  cannot 
suppose  that  this  is  said  in  reference  to  the  belief  of  Judaisers, 
who  could  see  nothing  but  weakness  in  the  crucifixion. 
Even  Judaisers  must  have  .seen  some  Divine  purpose  in  it,  or 
they  would  not  have  embraced  Christianity  at  all.  Surely 
Paul  refers  to  the  great  example  simply  to  make  clear  the 
enigma  of  his  own  life.  Weakness  and  strength  belong  to 
the  essence  of  Christianity.  Christ  was  weak  so  far  as 
regards  all  worldly  power,  and  sank  under  the  frailty  of 
death  ;  yet  he  lives  through  the  power  of  God,  So  the 
Apostle  abjures  in  him  all  worldly  strength,  but  he  too  will 
live  through  the  power  of  God,  and  prove  the  presence  of 
this  Divine  life  and  power  by  his  conduct  towards  the 
Corinthians. 

Try  your  own  selves  (xiii.,  5). — The  sense  might  be  thus 
supplied  :  instead  of  seeking  a  proof  of  Christ  in  me,  prove 
yourselves.  But  I  think  it  is  rather  :  prove  yourselves  in- 
stead of  waiting  for  me  to  put  you  to  the  proof;  see  whether 
you  retain  your  Christian  faith,  for,  if  you  do,  you  will  find 
Christ  in  yourselves,  bringing  your  evil  into  judgment. 
"The  faith,"  according  to  Paul's  usage,  must  mean,  not 
the  objective  system  of  belief,  but  the  inward  sentiment, — 
are  you  within  that  region  of  faith  which  is  the  basis  of  the 


i86  SECOND  CORINTHIANS        xiii.,  6-13. 

Christian  life  ?  If  that  is  gone,  and  you  have  no  sense  of 
Christ  in  you,  you  are  reprobate,  rejected  as  not  satisfying 
the  test.  This  is  put  as  an  improbable  hypothesis :  the 
means  of  Christian  self-judgment  are  really  there. 

But  I  hope  (xiii.,  6). — However  this  may  be,  I  hope  you 
will  see  sufficient  proof  of  Christ  in  me. 

Not  that  we  may  appear  approved  (xiii.,  7),  as  we  should 
do  if  our  admonition  prevailed,  and  you  refrained  from  all 
evil.  Our  desire  is  simply  that  you  should  do  what  is  right, 
and  we  should  be,  as  it  were,  reprobate,  having  no  occasion 
to  exercise  our  judicial  and  punitive  authority. 

We  can  do  7iothing  against  the  truth  (xiii.,  8)  :  the  truth 
of  the  Gospel,  according  to  some  ;  the  truth  of  the  facts,  ac- 
cording to  others.  We  may  perhaps  to  some  extent  combine 
these  explanations  :  my  whole  life  is  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  truth  ;  therefore  I  cannot  act  against  it  in  any  particular 
case. 

This  we  also  pray  for,  even  your  perfediiig  (xiii.,  9). — That 
was  his  one  supreme  object  in  his  dealings  with  them.  He 
had  no  wish  to  "  deal  sharply  "  ;  for  the  very  purpose  of  his 
apostolic  authority  was  that  he  might  build  up  the  Church. 
For  this  reason  he  put  his  admonitions  in  writing,  that  they 
might  quietly  produce  their  effect,  and  there  might  be  no- 
thing to  estrange  the  feelings  of  the  Corinthians,  or  interfere 
with  his  power  of  edification,  when  he  himself  appeared 
upon  the  scene. 

The  subject  is  now  concluded,  and  Paul  closes  the  letter  with  a 
few  words  expressive  of  the  deepest  affection,  and  still  suited  to  the 
themes  of  which  he  has  been  treating.  He  exhorts  them  to  be 
perfected,  forsaking  all  the  sins  of  which  he  has  had  to  complain  ;  and 
to  be  of  the  same  mind,  giving  up  their  factions,  and  the  mutual 
jealousy  from  which  they  sprang.  And  then  God  whose  highest 
attributes  are  love  and  peace  would  be  with  them,  and  dwell  within 
their  hearts  (xiii.,  11-14). 

All  the  saints  (xiii.,  13) :  that  is,  all  the  members  of  the 


xiii.,  14.  SECOND  CORINTHIANS  187 

cliurch  in  the  town  where  Panl  was  writing,  as  well  as  the 
companions  of  his  travels. 

The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  etc.  (xiii.,  14). — The 
grace  of  Christ  is  placed  first.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  Paul  generally  speaks  only  of  the  grace  of  Christ  in  his 
closing  benediction  ;  and  so  here  he  begins  in  the  usual  way, 
and  out  of  the  fulness  of  his  feelings  adds  the  other  clauses, 
which  are  so  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the  cliurch. 
Or,  if  the  whole  benediction  was  already  in  his  mind,  he  may 
have  placed  the  grace  of  Christ  first  as  being  the  basis  of 
Christian  experience.  "  God,"  standing  without  any  de- 
fining term,  such  as  "the  Father,"  is  clearly  distinguished 
from  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  We  may  compare  Jude  20, 
21,  where  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  love  of  God,  and  the  mercy 
of  Christ  are  in  similar  juxtaposition,  and  presently  {v.  25) 
the  doxology  is  made  "  to  the  only  God  our  Saviour,  through 
Jesus  Christ,"  the  Spirit  being  not  again  mentioned.  "The 
communion  of  the  Holy  Spirit"  ma)^  mean  participation  in 
the  Holy  Spirit,  or  communion  with  one  another  effected  by 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Both  ideas  may  be  included  ;  for  the  latter 
would  be  brought  about  by  the  former,  the  Spirit  in  the 
heart  being  the  firmest  and  closest  bond  of  union.  This  most 
comprehensive  and  sublime  benediction  came  from  the  depths 
of  Paul's  love  for  a  church  which  sorely  needed  it.  He  pro- 
nounced it  upon  "all"  the  members.  He  may  have  to 
speak  severely  ;  he  may  even  have  to  expose  his  enemies  ; 
but  there  can  be  no  exceptions  in  that  large  and  profound 
religious  love  with  which  he  would  embrace  both  friend  and 
foe,  in  order  to  lead  them  to  their  perfection. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE 
GALATIANS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  is  here  placed  between  those 
to  the  Corinthians  and  that  to  the  Romans,  not  because 
I  am  satisfied  that  that  is  its  true  chronological  position,  but 
because,  that  position  being  quite  uncertain,  we  may  conven- 
iently locate  it  according  to  its  literary  affinities,  and  com- 
bine it  with  Romans,  to  which  it  is  most  closely  related  in 
thought  and  argument.  The  prevailing  opinion  has  been 
that  it  was  written  during  the  same  missionary  journey  as 
the  Corinthian  and  Roman  Epistles  ;  but  there  has  been  no 
uniform  judgment  as  to  its  place  within  the  group,  nor  has  it 
been  settled  whether  it  was  written  from  Ephesus  or  Corinth, 
or  on  the  journey  between  the  two  cities.  Owing,  however, 
to  the  want  of  clear  chronological  indications  within  the 
Epistle  itself  it  is  possible  to  take  ver)'  different  views  ;  and 
it  has  been  regarded  both  as  the  latest  and  as  the  earliest  of 
the  Pauline  writings.  The  variety  of  opinion  as  to  the  date 
is  partly  connected  with  a  difference  of  view  as  to  the  locality 
of  the  Galatian  churches.  Eminent  scholars  have  sought 
for  these  churches  in  the  district  occupied  by  the  horde  of 
Gauls  who  forced  their  way  into  Asia  Minor  towards  the 
close  of  the  third  century  before  Christ,  while  others  have 
argued  with  great  force  in  favour  of  the  churches  founded  by 

189 


I90  INTRODUCTION 

Barnabas  and  Paul,  during  the  first  missionary  journe}^,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  which 
embraced  a  much  wider  territory  than  Galatia  proper.  The 
latter  view  has  recently  been  brought  into  prominence  by  the 
able  discussions  of  Professor  Ramsay.  It  is  by  no  means 
free  from  difficulties,  and  the  question  must,  I  think,  be 
regarded  as  still  sub  judice.  It  is  impossible  to  discuss  it  in 
this  small  commentary  ;  but  happily  the  decision  does  not 
in  any  wa}^  affect  the  main  purport  of  the  Epistle. 

It  seems  clear  from  the  letter  itself  that  the  churches 
addressed  were  composed  of  Gentiles,  who  had  passed  straight 
from  polytheism  into  Christianity  (see  iv.,  8  and  v.,  2-4). 
Certain  Judaisers  made  their  way  into  these  churches,  and 
endeavoured,  only  too  successfully,  to  persuade  the  people 
that  Paul's  was  a  very  imperfect  Gospel ;  that  he  knew 
nothing  about  Christianity  but  what  he  had  learnt  from  the 
authorities  in  Jerusalem,  to  whom  alone  he  could  owe  his 
title  to  be  a  missionary  ;  and  that,  if  they  wished  to  enter  into 
the  full  enjoyment  of  the  promises  made  to  Israel,  they  must 
receive  the  sign  of  the  covenant.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
such  men  should  produce  a  marked  effect  among  fickle  and 
excitable  people,  who  might  feel  awed  by  the  grandeur  of 
the  ancient  claims  of  Judaism,  and  who  would  think  at  first 
that,  in  adopting  Jewish  rites,  they  were  only  adding  to  the 
perfection  of  the  Gospel  which  they  had  received  from  Paul, 

The  mind  of  the  Apostle  was  deeply  stirred  by  the  accounts 
which  reached  him  ;  for  the  principles  laid  down  b}^  the 
Judaisers  seemed  to  be  directly  antagonistic  to  the  Gospel 
which  he  preached.  He  wrote  the  Epistle  in  order  to  check 
the  mischievous  results  which  were  so  quickly  manifesting 
themselves  in  the  community.  It  gives  a  vivid  picture  of 
the  activity  of  Judaisers  among  the  Gentile  churches,  and 
lays  down  in  broad  lines,  and  with  sharp  incisiveness,  the 
arguments  on  which  Paul  relied  to  confute  their  false  princi- 
ples.     There  is  a  tone  of  indignation,  which  now  and  again 


GALATIANS  191 

melts  into  tenderness,  running  through  its  glowing  sentences. 
It  is  evident  that  the  Apostle  himself  had  been  attacked  and 
misrepresented  ;  and  this  leads  him  in  the  first  two  chapters 
to  defend  his  authority  and  independence.  In  doing  so  he 
gives  us  most  interesting  glimpses  into  his  personal  history. 
The  account  of  a  remonstrance  which  he  addressed  to  Peter 
brings  him  into  the  doctrinal  argument,  which  runs  through 
the  third  and  fourth  chapters  ;  and  this  is  succeeded  by  a 
hortatory  portion,  in  which  the  main  theme  constantly  recurs. 
The  Epistle  closes  with  some  ardent  sentences  written  with 
the  Apostle's  own  hand. 

The  subject  of  the  Epistle  is  identical  with  that  which 
occupies  a  large  part  of  Romans,  and  the  argument  occasion- 
ally follows  the  same  lines  ;  but  the  style  of  treatment  is 
exceedingly  different,  and,  when  we  make  a  careful  compari- 
son between  the  two  Epistles,  several  instructive  contrasts 
present  themselves.  These  are  due  to  the  general  fact  that 
in  the  one  he  is  indignantly  repelling  an  insidious  and 
dangerous  attack  ;  in  the  other  he  is  calmly  endeavouring  to 
confirm  sympathetic  readers,  and  sometimes,  probably,  resolv- 
ing difficulties  which  had  arisen  in  his  own  mind.  The 
study  of  Galatians  is  a  useful  preparation  for  the  wide  out- 
look and  the  loft}'  treatment  of  the  whole  question  in  the 
larger  Epistle. 


GALATIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

THE  Epistle  begins,  as  usual,  with  an  address  and  greet- 
ing (i.,  1-5),  which  are,  however,  distinguished  by  some 
special  features,  the  insistence  on  the  Divine  origin  of  Paul's 
apostleship,  the  coldness  of  his  description  of  the  "  churches  " 
(or  "congregations  "),  and  the  doctrinal  allusions,  which  are 
suited  to  the  general  subject  of  the  Apostle's  communication. 
Not  from  men,  neither  througli  man  (i.,  i).— We  may  in- 
fer that  his  opponents  represented  liis  apostolic  commission 
as  derived  from  the  Twelve,  and  therefore  possessing  no  in- 
dependent authority  ;  and  accordingly  he  devotes  the  first 
part  of  Ills  letter  to  an  assertion  of  his  independence.  He  was 
a  high  example  of  those  who,  without  any  official  authority, 
are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God.  His  commission  was  not  de- 
rived ultimately  "  from  men,"  nor  conveyed  to  him  through 
the  mediation  of  man.  "Jesus  Christ"  is  here  contrasted 
with  "man,"  not  because  Paul  denied  the  humanity  of 
Christ,  but  because  Christ  in  his  heavenly  condition,  and  as 
head  of  the  Church,  was  raised  above  the  world  of  men 
living  on  the  earth.  Hence  the  allusion  to  the  resurrection  : 
it  was  not  through  the  earthly  but  the  heavenly  Christ  that 
Paul  was  called  to  be  an  Apostle.  The  extension  of  the 
preposition  "  through  "  to  God  seems  to  indicate  that  Paul 
received  his  apostleship,  not  only  through  the  mediation  of 
Christ  from  God  as  its  ultimate  source,  but  through  the  im- 
mediate operation  of  God  Himself.     (Compare  v.  15.) 

195 


196  GALATIANS  i-,  2,  3. 

All  the  brethren  which  are  with  me  (i.,  2),  that  is,  his  com- 
panions in  travelling  and  teaching,  who  were  unanimous  in 
supporting  his  doctrine. 

Grace  to  you  and  peace  (i.,  3).— The  word  grace,  J^'P^S', 
which  begins  the  greeting,  is  one  which  requires  our  atten- 
tion in  connection  with  the  Pauline  theology.  It  is  obvious 
to  every  reader  of  the  Epistles  that  this  ancient  Greek  term 
has  acquired  under  Christianity  a  theological  signification. 
Its  English  equivalent  is  grace,  a  word  which  we  must  retain  ; 
for  though  it  is  sometimes  desirable,  when  practicable,  to  find 
a  substitute  for  the  ancient  expression,  so  as  to  restore  the 
freshness  and  vigour  of  the  original  thought,  there  is  no 
other  term  in  English  so  suggestive  as  grace,  or  capable  of 
conveying  the  necessary  ideas, 

Xapz?  (grace),  in  what  we  may  tefili  its  theological  sense,  as  di5= 
tiuguished  from  its  use  in  ordinary  speech,  is,  though  hot  dlstiiafctlvely 
Pauline,  yet  so  characteristic  of  his  language  and  his  thought  that  we 
may  probably  ascribe  to  the  Apostle  of  the  GentileS  its  introductioil 
into  Christian  phraseology.  In  Matthew  and  Mark  it  is  not  fSund  at 
all.  Luke  uses  it  eight  times  (besides  the  prepositiot)  X<^0^^' ^  once); 
but  of  these  in  four  instances  it  denotes  thanks,  and  in  the  othet  four, 
if  the  theological  sense  is  present,  it  is  certainly  not  prominent.  In 
John  it  occurs  four  times  in  the  proem,  but  never  afterwards  ;  nor  does 
it  appear  in  John's  First  Epistle.  In  the  other  non-Pauline  Epistles  it 
is  ,  most  frequent  in  i  Peter,  where  it  is  used  eight  times,  besides 
twice  in  a  different  meaning.  In  Hebrews  it  is  much  rarer  than  might 
have  been  anticipated.  In  Acts  it  is,  as  we  might  expect  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  Paul  upon  the  scene,  and  from  the  Pauline  tendency  of  the 
writer,  more  common  than  in  the  Gospels,  and  in  about  nine  instances 
we  may  attach  to  it  the  specifically  Christian  sense.  But  in  the  Paul- 
ine Epistles  it  presents  itself  not  less  than  a  hundred  times  ;  and 
though  its  import  is  not  invariably  theological,  Paul's  fondness  for  it, 
due  probably  to  its  religious  value,  is  evident  from  its  being  so  copi- 
ously employed.  Selecting  the  instances  of  its  theological  use,  it  will 
be  sufficient  if  we  refer  to  the  more  important  Epistles.  In  Romans 
it  is  met  with  22  times  ;  in  i  Corinthians  8  times ;  in  2  Corinthians 
9  times;  in  Galatians  7  times;  in  Ephesians  12  times.  The  verb 
XapiC^o^iai  is  confiued  to  Luke,  Acts,  and  the  Pauline  Epistles,  where 


^•'^-  GaLatians  197 

it  is  used  not  only  of  the  gracious  gifts  and  forgiveness  of  God.  but 
also  of  human  forgiveness  proceeding  from  a  like  gracious  spirit :  see 
Luke  vn.,  4.,  43;  ,  Corinthians  ii.,  7,  10,  xii..  13;    Ephesians  iv.. 
32  .  Colossians  in.,  13.     Xa,n6,ca  is  confined,  with  the  single  excep 
:on  of  X  Peter  n-     :o,  to  the  Pauline  Epistles,  where  we  Le    w  th 

1  T"'  T  ,  ,''  '  '"  "^  ''°"^^""  ^"^^  7  in  I  Corinthians.  We 
S/w-thH  ,  '  .r'^^^^«^""  ^1-t  the  introduction  of  the  word 
a  Te^^t  V  1 '  T  .  '"'°''"' '"'°  ^'^"-^^'--ty  is,  if  not  exclusively, 
at  least  very  largely,  due  to  Paul's  peculiar  spiritual  experience  com 
bxned  wUh  his  remarkable  powers  of  speculative  thought  '  Th't 
others  should  to  some  extent  have  echoed  his  language  I  no  more 
term  T  T^'^'l^'^'j  ^"'^''^  '  '"^  ''  '^  °"^^  '^  ^^"^  Epistles  that  the 

docTri   e      VV        "^     °''  "^"''  ""^  "^"'-^  *^  ^-^P--  a  characteristic 
doctnne.     \\  e  now  pass  on  to  ascertain  its  sense 

c  Jon  tff  r'  '?''  ""^  ^'"  ^^  ^^^  ^°°^  "^^'-^"^'^  «P^--1  -PPl- 
be.nt      >  "     '"°'"'^^  °"'^'''>^^^'  g^"-^'''"y  personal,  grace  or 

beauty,  :t  can.e  to  express  the  gracious  or  kindly  feeling  of  either  the 
bestower  or  the  recipient  of  a  favour.     The  classical  writers  use  it 

thanks.      I"  this  sense  It  IS  occasionally  employed  by  Paul.      See   for 
nstance,  Rom   v:.,  17,  ^..p.5  .-.■  rcJ  e.o5.     From  the  inward  feeling  of 

whic  "tr\^'  Tr'"' -'  '"'"'^""^  *°  ^^^  °"^--d  ^—  or  giff  by 
usa  e  b  K        ?  '^--'pressed.     Now  Paul  deviates  from  classical 

w  iffeh^'l  H  ',;'%  ";"''  P-dominantly  the  meaning  of  good- 
VN  :ll  felt  by  the  bestower  of  a  favour.  This  is  an  inevitable  result  of 
carryn.g  the  idea  over  into  the  Divine  realm.  The  xapi,  of  God  can- 
no  be  gratitude  for  a  benefit  received,  but  only  thf  gracious  feefnl 
of  the  a  1-bounteous  Giver.  Here,  then,  it  receives  a  distinctiv  theo^ 
logical  stamp  It  so  habitually  refers  to  the  grace  of  God  that  it  may 
even  be  used  by  itself  to  represent  an  abstract  principle  of  Div"ne 
government,  as  in  Romans  vi.,  14,  oi  yap  ears  i.^6  r6L  aAXdT^ 

firSit/T  'T  "°'  ""'^"  ''^'  ^"'  ""^^^^  ^'■^^^•"  ^'  ^^  the  human 
side  fa,  h  stands  over  against  legal  works,  so  on  the  Divine  side  the 
grace  which  showers  down  its  benefits  on  men  is  opposed  to  the  law 
which  only  demands  their  obedience,  'if  we  ask  in  what  resp  ct  hi" 
differs  from  love,  we  are  introduced  to  another  important  element  in 
Paul  s  thought.  It  excludes  the  notion  of  desert  in  its  object.  L^  " 
does  not  of  course  necessarily  include  this  notion,  for  it  is  possible  to 
love  the  unworthy  ;  but  it  does  not  exclude  it.  Xap:,,  however  L^ 
phes  an  unconditioned  freedom  in  the  Divine  action.  This  is  'seen 
most  clearly  in  Romans  iv.,  4,  "to  him  that  worketh.  the  reward  is 


198  GALA  TIANS  i.,  3. 

not  reckoned  as  of  grace,  but  as  of  debt,"  which  shows  that  just  in 
proportion  as  the  idea  of  debt  towards  the  meritorious  comes  in,  the 
idea  of  grace  retreats.  See  also  Romans  iii.,  24,  "being  justified 
freely  by  his  grace  "  [(/.  further  Eph.  ii.,  8,  9]. 

We  must  next  observe  that  the  grace  of  which  Paul  speaks  is  exer- 
cised in  the  spiritual  sphere,  in  relation  to  the  soul  of  man  ;  and  con- 
sequently, when  the  word  passes  on  to  the  meaning  of  a  benefit  or 
favour  conferred,  it  denotes  the  effect  of  God's  gracious  operation  in 
the  soul,  or  the  form  of  spiritual  character  which  is  determined  by  the 
free  bounty  of  God.  We  may  illustrate  the  extended  use  of  the  term 
by  referring  to  i  Corinthians  xvi.,  3,  where  the  money  collected  in 
the  church  at  Corinth  for  the  poor  Christians  in  Jerusalem  is  called 
TTjv  xoipiy  v/.i(Sy,  "your  grace,"  that  is,  your  gift  spontaneously  pre- 
sented as  a  simple  offering  of  good-will.  Paul  does  not  use  it,  however, 
of  the  outward  gifts  of  God,  but  reserves  it  for  the  higher  and  spiritual 
graces  which  flow  from  Him.  An  instructive  example  is  furnished  by 
I  Corinthians  xv.,  10,  "By  the  grace  of  God  I  am  what  I  am  :  and 
His  grace  which  was  bestowed  upon  me  was  not  found  vain  ;  but  I 
laboured  more  abundantly  than  they  all :  yet  not  I,  but  the  grace  of 
God  which  was  with  me."  Here  the  grace  is  a  Divine  power  com- 
municated to  the  soul,  preparing  it  for  a  special  ofBce,  and  then 
continuously  working  through  it.  This  use  is  further  illustrated  by 
Galatians  ii.,  9,  where  we  are  told  that  Peter,  James,  and  John  knew, 
or,  as  the  Revisers  have  it,  perceived,  the  grace  that  was  given  to  Paul. 
The  grace,  therefore,  was  something  which  was  given,  and  which 
might  be  recognised  by  its  results.  We  get  a  clearer  insight  into  its 
nature  from  the  previous  verse.  It  was  an  inworking  of  God,  fitting 
Paul  with  the  needed  gifts  to  make  him  an  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 
The  varying  nature  of  this  grace  is  apparent  from  Romans  xii.,  6  sqq., 
where  Christians  generally  are  represented  as  having  ^crpzcJ/zn-ra 
(gifts  of  grace)  diff'ering  according  to  the  ;i^apzj  given  to  each.  The 
ja'p??  seems  to  be  the  type  of  spiritual  excellence  which  is  bestowed 
by  the  grace  of  God,  the  X'^P^^I^'^  the  resulting  aptitnde  for  some 
special  kind  of  work.  In  Ephesians  iv.,  7  sqq.,  if  we  may  venture  to 
appeal  to  that  Epistle  in  stating  the  belief  of  Paul,  the  varying 
character  of  grace  is  attributed  to  its  being  given  in  partial  measures, 
and  the  hope  is  held  out  that  in  time  this  partiality  will  disappear, 
and  all  will  attain  to  a  complete  man,  to  the  measure  of  the  stature  of 
the  fulness  of  Christ. 

These  remarks  may  suffice  to  make  clear  to  our  thought  the  Pauline 
meaning  and  u.se  of  Z'V-"?  as  the  grace  of  God.     The  doctrinal  appli- 


i.,  3.  GALATIANS  199 

cation  of  the  ideas  which  it  contains  we  must  reserve  for  consideration 
as  the  occasion  arises.  Paul,  however,  speaks  not  only  of  the  grace 
of  God,  but  of  the  grace  of  Christ.  The  notion  is  thus  modified,  by 
introducing  the  great  agent  through  whom  the  Divine  grace  mani- 
fested in  the  Gospel  was  dispensed  ;  but  its  contents  remain  essentially 
the  same.  As  we  have  just  seen  from  a  passage  in  Ephesians,  Christ 
was  regarded  as  the  full  receptacle  of  all  the  grace  that  was  possible 
for  man  ;  and  if  Paul  could  sa^  of  himself  that  it  was  not  he,  but  the 
grace  of  God,  that  did  the  work,  much  more  was  it  the  free  and  bound- 
less love  of  God  that  lived  and  poured  itself  forth  in  Christ.  The 
grace  of  Christ,  then,  was  still  the  grace  of  God,  not  indeed  in  its  im- 
mediate and  untraceable  operation  in  the  soul,  but  as  visible  and 
active  in  one  who  was  wholly  surrendered  to  the  guidance  of  the 
Spirit.  It  was  his  gracious  influence  upon  the  heart,  an  influence 
essentially  Divine  because  uncontaminated  by  human  self-will ;  and 
its  result  upon  him  whom  it  affected  was  to  lay  upon  him  the  same 
spiritual  impress,  and  make  him  consciously  a  child  of  God.  Thus 
the  grace  assumed  in  Christ  a  definite  and  intelligible  form  ;  and 
Paul's  thought  would  not  be  complete  without  this  reference  to 
Christ,  which  brings  to  a  clearly  defined  focus  what  would  otherwise 
be  a  vague  and  cloudy  image. 

We  nnist  now  ask  whether  we  are  to  attach  to  ,Y'^/-"5  its  rich 
theological  meaning  in  this  and  similar  salutations  in  the  other 
Epistles.  Fritzsche,  in  his  note  on  the  salutation  in  Romans,  is  for 
reducing  it  to  a  mere  compliment,  "  May  God  and  Jesus  Christ  favour 
you,  and  prosper  your  affairs."  I  think  this  explanation  misses 
altogether  the  earnestness  with  which  Paul  writes.  His  deep  religious 
feeling  colours  all  his  language,  and  he  was  not  likely  to  use  in  an 
empty  formula  two  words  so  fraught  with  sijiritual  meaning  for  him- 
self. He  would  naturally  have  preferred  the  ordinary  ^tr/'/jf/;' 
("greeting").  Fritzsche's  objection  that  the  Roman  Christians  had 
not  still  to  be  brought  to  Christ,  but  must  already  have  received  grace 
and  peace  in  their  higher  sense,  is  of  little  weight;  for  these  spiritual 
gifts  are  not  fixed  quantities,  given  once  for  all,  but  influences  which, 
with  most  of  us,  come  and  go,  and  for  which  we  may  pray  daily.  I 
therefore  suppose  that  Paul  in  his  salutations  used  ^^'p^S  in  its  pro- 
foundest  and  richest  religious  significance.  The  same  reasoning  will 
apply  to  the  word  which  is  coupled  with  X''^Pti,  Elpi)vj}  (peace).  It  has 
been  observed  that  the  former  answers  to  tlie  Greek  salutation,  ja//3f?K, 
and  the  latter  to  the  Hebrew  term  used  in  a  similar  connection.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  whether  this  is  intentional  ;  but  at  all  events  we  must 


200  GALATIANS  i.,  3. 

look  for  the  meaning  of  "peace"  in  Paul  himself,  and  not  in  the 
Hebrew  greeting.  Though  not  of  such  frequent  occurrence  as  ;<:a/3z5, 
it  is  still  found  sufficiently  often  to  arrest  the  attention  ;  but  there  is 
no  passage  where  its  meaning  is  very  clearly  defined.  There  can, 
however,  be  little  doubt  that  it  expresses  primarily  an  inward, 
spiritual  peace,  the  consciousness  of  a  calm  and  reconciled  mind. 
"  The  fruit  of  the  Spirit,"  we  read,  "  is  love,  joy,  peace,"  and  so  forth 
(Gal.  v.,  22)  ;  and,  as  all  the  other  words  in  the  list  denote  mental 
qualities,  we  must  ascribe  a  corresponding  meaning  to  "peace." 
Again,"  the  kingdom  of  God  is  not  eating  and  drinking,  but  righteous- 
ness and  peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Spirit,"  not  mere  liberation  from 
ceremonial  restraints,  but  the  possession  of  certain  spiritual  sentiments 
(Rom.  xiv.,  17,  with  the  context).  A  mind  at  peace  vyith  itself  in- 
volves peace  towards  God,  for  peace  can  be  obtained  only  by  the 
reconciliation  of  the  lower  with  the  higher.  The  law  in  the  members 
wages  war  against  the  law  in  the  mind  ;  but  the  law  in  the  mind  is  the 
law  of  God,  and  hence  the  inward  war  does  not  stop  within,  but  the 
"mind  of  the  flesh  "  is  enmity  against  God,  and  on  the  other  hand 
"  the  mind  of  the  spirit  "  is  peace,  that  is,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the 
context,  peace  with  God  (Rom.  vii.,  22,  23  ;  viii.,  6,  7).  "Peace  to- 
wards God,"  therefore,  is  one  of  the  ends  of  the  Christian  life  (Rom. 
v.,  i).  But  the  holy  calm  of  a  reconciled  heart  not  only  reaches  up- 
wards, but  spreads  around,  and  creates  a  peaceful  community.  "  God 
is  not  a  God  of  confusion,  but  of  peace"  (i  Cor.  xiv.,  33),  preventing 
all  disorders  in  the  Church  wherever  His  Spirit  truly  reigns  ;  and  it  is 
therefore  incumbent  on  us  as  Christians  to  "  follow  after  things  which 
make  for  peace,  and  things  whereby  we  may  edify  one  another  "  (Rom. 
xiv.,  19).  If  this  be  a  true  sketch  of  what  Paul  meant  by  peace,  we 
can  understand  with  what  serious  and  loving  purpose  he  placed  the 
word  in  his  salutations.  His  strong,  passionate  nature  knew  full  well 
the  violence  of  inward  strife,  and  the  agony  of  a  heart  which  could  not 
feel  itself  at  one  with  God  ;  and  when  the  power  of  Divine  grace  cooled 
the  fever  of  his  heart,  and  through  the  spell  of  a  new  spirit  placed  him 
on  the  side  of  God,  he  must  have  known  with  rare  intensity  the  sweet- 
ness and  blessedness  of  peace,  and  what  better  could  he  have  wished  for 
his  most  beloved  friends  than  grace  and  peace,  the  peace  of  a  crucified 
self-will,  and  of  childlike  rest  in  God?  In  this  connection  it  may  be 
worth  while  mentioning  that  Philo  also  was  acquainted  with  "  the  war 
of  the  soul,"  and  with  the  peace  which  "  God  graciously  confers  on  the 
mind  "  ;  and  he  assigned  to  peace  a  most  exalted  rank,  making  it  a 
leader  among  the  many-named  powers  of  the  Self-existent,  for  God 


i.,  4,  5.  GALATIANS  201 

alone,  as  possessing  absolute  volition,  was  also  absolute  peace.'  But 
in  Pliilo  the  subject  wears  a  colder  and  more  philosophical  aspect.  We 
do  not  find  in  him  the  profound  religious  experiences  which  shook 
the  soul  of  Paul  ;  and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  peace  which  he  dis- 
covered did  not  detach  him  from  his  fealty  to  Judaism,  or  convert  him 
into  the  missionary  of  a  higher  faith. 

Who  gave  himself  for  our  shis  (i.,  4). — In  life  as  in  death 
Christ  "  gave  himself"  and  not  mere  outward  gifts  ;  and  in 
his  death  on  the  cross  the  sacrifice  of  love  was  made  com- 
plete. It  was  "in  relation  to"  or  "on  behalf  of "  '  our 
sins  that  he  gave  himself.  The  conquest  of  sin  was  the 
object  of  his  self-devotion.  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  life  that 
gives  value  and  significance  to  suffering. 

This  present  evil  world  (properly  age,  i.,  4). — Patil  ac- 
cepts the  ctistomary  Jewish  division  into  two  ages,  the  pre- 
Messianic  time,  and  the  future,  when  the  Messiah  would 
have  come  and  established  the  Kingdom  of  God.  Btit  he 
seems  in  the  present  passage  to  turn  the  temporal  into  a 
moral  distinction,  for  only  thus  cotild  men  pass  out  of  the 
"present  age."  To  the  Christian,  looking  for  the  speedy 
return  of  Christ,  the  new  age  had  virtually  come.  There  is 
here  an  anticipation  of  the  stibject  of  the  Epistle  ;  for  when 
men  had  left  all  evil  behind  them,  the  L,aw  would  thereby 
have  given  place  to  the  Spirit. 

Aceording  to  the  will  of  our  God  and  Father  (i.,  4). — The 
.self-sacrifice  of  Christ  was  an  expression  of  the  Divine  will, 
tlie  will  of  one  who  is  "our  Father,"  and  therefore  does  all 
things  in  love.  The  idea  of  the  Divine  fatherhood  is  reiter- 
ated in  this  passage  ;  for  the  doctrine  of  human  sonship  is 
fundamental  in  the  Epistle. 

Amen  (i.,  5),  a  Hebrew  word,  "^so  be  it,"  uttered  as  a  re- 
sponse in  the  synagogties  at  the  end  of  prayers.      From  the 

'  De  Soiiiti.,  II.  ^  3S,  I.  692  (INIangey).     See  also  De  Giq^ant.,  §  ii,  I. 
269 ;  De  Ebrict.,  \  18,  I.  36S  ;  Quis  rcr.  div.  Her.,  \  58,  I.  514. 
*  The  reading  is  uncertain. 


20  2  GALA  TIANS  i.,  6-9. 

synagogues  it  passed  to  the  Christian  assembhes,  and,  when 
Greek  churches  were  formed,  was  retained  as  a  solemn  ex- 
pression which  they  did  not  wish  to  translate. 

He  introduces  the  subject  of  the  Epistle  by  expressing  his  aston- 
ishment at  the  speedy  defection  of  the  Galatians  (i.,  6-10). 

These  strongly  condemnatory  expressions  take  the  place  of 
the  usual  thanksgiving. 

Quickly  (i.,  6). — It  is  doubtful  whether  this  means  so  soon 
after  their  conversion,  or  after  Paul's  second  visit,  or  after  the 
coming  of  the  false  teachers.  It  is  not  necessary  to  limit  the 
reference  very  strictly  ;  and  the  second  and  third  explanations 
may  coalesce,  for  Paul  had  to  speak  a  word  of  warning  on 
his  second  visit  (see  v.  9). 

Him  that  called  you  (i.,  6)  ;  that  is,  God.  The  defection 
was  not  merely  from  an  opinion,  but  from  God  Himself,  whose 
call  they  had  acknowledged. 

In  the  grace  of  Christ  (i.,  6). — The  "  in  "  is  partly,  but  not 
purely  instrumental.  The  call  was  contained  within  the 
grace,  and  so  came  in  and  through  it.  The  grace  is  spe- 
cially mentioned  here  as  antithetical  to  the  Law,  and  involv- 
ing deliverance  from  it,  so  that  subjection  to  the  Law  was  a 
renunciation  of  the  Gospel. 

Which  is  not  another  (!.,  7). — The  false  teaching  was  quite 
"  different  "  from  Paul's,  but  it  was  not  a  se^cond  gospel ;  it 
was  a  mere  turning  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ  the  wrong  way 
about. 

We  or  an  angel  (i.,  8). — In  this  verse  he  supposes  an  im- 
possible case  ;  in  the  next  he  introduces  hypothetically  a  fact 
which  was  actually  taking  place.  We  ought  to  reject  the 
highest  imaginable  authority  if  it  perverted  the  best  that  we 
have  seen  and  known. 

Anathema  (i.,  8,  9),  a  thing  devoted,  used  in  the  New 
Testament  in  a  bad  sense,  devoted  to  destruction.  Hence  it 
came  to  be  used  of  excommunication  ;  but  it  probably  does 


9-1 1.  GALATIANS 


203 


not  refer  here  to  any  formal  act.      It  is  a  strong  way  of  say- 
ing, "reject  utterly  all  such  false  teachers." 

We  have  said  before  (i.,  9). — The  contrast  with  "  now" 
shows  that  the  reference  is  not  to  the  previous  verse,  but  to 
Paul's  last  visit  to  Galatia. 

Ye  received  (i.,  9)  :  an  important  statement  in  the  argument. 
Having  "received"  the  Gospel,  they  must  have  been  con- 
scious of  its  superiority  to  the  teaching  of  the  Judaisers. 

Am  I  now  (i.,  10).— The  words  seem  to  imply  that  Paul 
had  been  charged  with  being  a  mere  man-pleaser ;  and  this 
is  his  excuse  for  using  such  vehement  language.  He  became 
all  things  to  all  men  that  he  might  gain  some  to  Christ,  but 
not  tliat  he  might  win  their  favour.  The  service  of  Christ 
was  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  principle  of  selfish  man- 
pleasing  ;  and  since  his  opponents  mistook  his  gentleness  and 
courtesy,  he  would  use  language  which  could  not  be  mis- 
understood. 

Still  (i.,  10).— It  is  probable  that  this  word  is  used  hypo- 
thetically,  and  not  of  Paul's  pre-Christian  state  ;  for  even 
then  man-pleasing  was  not  his  characteristic.  He  says  in 
effect : — "  If,  as  you  affirm,  I  once  curried  favour  with  men, 
you  cannot  say  that  I  am  doing  so  now.  If  I  continued  to 
act  on  that  principle,  I  should  not  be  Christ's  servant." 

After  this  introduction  Paul  enters  on  his  personal  defence  (i.,  11- 
ii.,  21) ;  and  first  he  states  his  case  by  affirming  that  he  had  received 
his  Gospel  through  direct  revelation  (i.,  11,  12). 

The  Gospel  which  ivas  preached  by  vie  (i.,  Ii). — This  prob- 
ably refers,  not  to  the  outward  facts,  which  would  be  learned 
through  the  ordinary  channels  o£  information,  but  to  the 
spiritual  significance  of  the  facts.  The  "  difierent  gospel  " 
of  the  Judaisers  must  have  presented  the  same  facts  ;  but 
Paul's  Gospel  was  distinguished  from  theirs  by  its  spiritual 
depth  and  universalism. 

Not  after   man    (i.,    11),    not   conformed  to  the  ordinary 


204  GALATIANS  i.,  12-15. 

thoughts  and  ways  of  men,  and  therefore  not  such  as  would 
proceed  from  a  man-pleaser. 

/  (i.,  12),  emphatic  in  the  Greek,  probabl)^  meaning  "/ 
was  not  more  dependent  than  other  preachers  of  the  Gospel 
on  human  instruction." 

Receive  .  .  .  taught  (i.,  12). — The  former  word  refers  to 
that  which  is  handed  on  from  one  to  another,  as  in  the  rab- 
binical schools  ;  the  latter  to  the  systematic  teaching  by 
which  the  tradition  was  driven  home,  and  fixed  in  the 
memory. 

Revelation  of  Jesns  Christ  (i,,  12). — The  contrast  with 
"man"  requires  the  meaning,  revelation  communicated  by 
Jesus  Christ.  The  idea  in  i.,  16  is  different,  but  not  incon- 
sistent with  this.  Compare  the  similar  statement  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  :  "  No  one  showed  me  that  which  I  ought 
to  do  ;  but  the  Most  High  Himself  revealed  to  me  that  I 
ought  to  live  according  to  the  form  of  the  holy  Gospel.  "  ' 

The  Apostle  now  proceeds  to  his  proofs.  First,  his  Gospel  was 
directly  opposed  to  the  tradition  and  teaching  of  his  early  years, 
and  no  mere  human  learning  could  have  brought  about  so  complete 
and  sudden  a  change  in  his  convictions  (i.,  13,  14,  in  connection 
with  what  follows). 

Traditions  of  my  fathers  (i.,  14). — Paul  belonged  to  a 
Pharisaic  family,  and  was  therefore  particularly  attached  to 
the  "traditions,"  which  were  handed  down  in  the  schools 
as  an  oral  interpretation  of  the  written  law,  and  were  ob- 
served with  peculiar  care  by  the  Pharisees. 

As  a  second  proof  he  affirms  that  after  his  conversion,  which  was 
due  to  an  immediate  Divine  act,  he  did  not  confer  with  other  men 
(i-,  15-17). 

Separated  me  (i.,  15),  set  me  apart  even  from  my  birth. 
Little  as  he  knew  it,  it  was  the  design  of  Providence  that  he 
should  become  an  Apostle,  and  that  by  means  of  the  law 

'  Testamentum  Fr.,  quoted  by  Sabatier,  p.  viii.,  note. 


i.,  15-19.  GALA  TIANS  205 

which  he  loved  so  fanatically  he  should  die  to  the  law,  and 
rise  into  the  new  spirit  of  life  which  came  through  the 
Crucified. 

Through  his  grace  (i.,  15). — The  change  in  him  was  not 
through  the  teachhig  of  others,  or  through  his  own  effort, 
but  through  the  call  of  Divine  love,  which  came  to  him  with 
overpowering  appeal. 

To  reveal  his  Son  in  me  (i.,  16). — Jesus,  the  Crucified, 
was  revealed  within  him  as  the  Son,  who  was  to  lead 
tllailkind  into  the  new  life  of  sonship,  where  the  distincttort 
of  Jew  and  Gentile  Oeascd  to  exist.  The  Gentile  mission 
was  involved  in  this  inward  illumination,  and  already  Paul 
3aw  more  deeply  into  the  spiritual  bearing  of  the  Gospel 
than  the  primitive  Apostles  themselves. 

Iimnediately  I  conferred  not  (i.,  16). — There  was  no  hesita- 
tion ;  immediately  he  decided  not  to  confer, 

Arabia  (i.,  17)  :  possibly  the  regions  adjoining  Damascus', 
He  probably  retired  into  a  lonely  place,  to  meditate  on  the- 
great  change  which  had  taken  place  within  him.  The 
duration  of  his  stay  cannot  be  fixed,  for  he  does  not  say 
how  long  he  remained  in  Damascus.  According  to  Acts 
(ix.,  20)  he  preached  there,  and  from  his  own  account  in 
2  Cor.  xi.,  32,  33,  we  may  infer  that  his  labours  lasted  for 
an  appreciable  time,  since  they  excited  the  enmity  even  of 
the  Governor. 

As  a  third  proof  he  states  that  three  years  passed  before  he  went 
to  Jerusalem,  that  then  he  went  to  pay  a  private  visit  to  Peter,  and 
saw  no  other  leading  man  except  James,  that  he  remained  only  fif- 
teen days,  and  then  removed  to  a  distance  from  the  Jewish  capital 
(i.,  18-24). 

After  three  years  (i.,  18)  ;  most  probably,  not  after  bis  re- 
turn to  Damascus,  but  after  his  conversion. 

Cephas  (i.,  i8),  an  Aramaic  word,  of  which  Petros  (Peter) 
is  the  Greek  equivalent. 

Save  fames  (i.,  19). — There  is  great  difference  of  opinion 


2o6  GALA  TIANS  i.,  20-ii.,  I. 

about  this  James,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  here. 
I  think  the  most  probable  view  is  that  he  was  a  son  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  and  not  one  of  the  Twelve.  The  word 
"Apostle"  may  then  be  understood  in  the  wider  sense  in 
which  it  includes  not  only  Paul,  but  Barnabas  and  others. 

Before  God,  I  lie  not  (i.,  20). — This  strong  asseveration 
guards  against  the  possible  notion  that  at  that  time  he  re- 
ceived his  apostolic  commission  from  the  church  at  Jerusa- 
lem. The  account  in  Acts  ix.,  26-30,  though  it  does  not 
aflfect  this  particular  point,  gives  a  verj^  different  impression 
of  the  visit. 

Syria  (i.,  21),  meaning,  no  doubt,  the  part  contiguous  to 
Cilicia,  and  remote  from  the  influence  of  Jerusalem. 

The  churches  of  Judcea  ivhich  were  in  Christ  (i.,  22). — The 
churches  are  so  described  to  distinguish  them  from  Jewish 
congregations.  These  churches  were  no  doubt  Jewish,  and 
observed  the  law  ;  but  Paul  fully  recognises  their  Christian 
position,  and  they,  on  their  side,  glorified  God  in  Paul, 
although  he  had  received  no  commission  from  them.  The 
change  from  a  persecutor  to  an  Apostle  of  the  faith  was  a 
sufficient  evidence  that  God  was  working  iu  him,  and  that 
he  had  a  Divine  right  to  preach. 

A  fourth  proof  was  afforded  by  the  fact  that  only  after  a  very  long 
interval  did  he  lay  his  Gospel  before  the  authorities  in  Jerusalem, 
and  they,  so  far  from  communicating  anything  further  to  him,  fully 
accepted  it  (ii.,  i-io). 

After  the  space  of  fourteen  years  (ii.,  l). — This  naturally 
means  fourteen  years  after  the  last  event,  and  therefore 
seventeen  years  after  the  conversion.  This  date  leads  us  to 
identify  the  visit  with  the  one  recorded  in  Acts  xv.,  which, 
according  to  the  usual  reckoning,  took  place  about  the  j-ear 
51.  Other  coincidences  which  point  to  the  same  conclusion 
are  the  following  : — a.  The  connection  of  Paul  with  Antioch 
(see  V,    11).     b.  Pie  was  still  co-operating  with  Barnabas, 


ii.,  I,  2.  GALATIANS 


207 


but  seems  by  this  time  to  have  taken  the  lead.  c.  Barnabas 
was  not  his  only  companion,  d.  The  occasion  was  due  to 
the  efforts  of  Judai.sers.  e.  The  subject  of  controversy  was 
the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles.  /.  James  and  Peter  are 
prominent  (Paul  adds  John),  g.  The  decision  is  given  in 
favour  of  Paul.  These  coincidences  seem  to  be  decisive, 
especially  when  we  remember  that  one  visit  of  this  kind 
would  render  a  second  superfluous.  Profes.sor  Ramsay,  how- 
ever, is  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  visit  is  the  one  briefly 
referred  to  in  Acts  xi.,  30.  He  has  not  convinced  me;  but 
as  the  question  relates  to  the  historical  value  of  Acts  rather 
than  to  the  interpretation  of  our  Epistle,  we  cannot  here  ex- 
amine his  arguments." 

Titus  (ii.,  i)  is  specially  mentioned,  as  being  a  Greek.  To 
take  a  Gentile  with  him  was  to  challenge  a  decision  in  the 
most  practical  way. 

By  revclatio7i  (ii.,  2)  ;  in  accordance  with  what  he  felt  to 
be  the  Divine  leading.  This  does  not  necessarily  preclude 
the  supposition  that  Paul  may  have  laid  the  matter  before 
the  church  at  Antioch,  and  received  from  them  the  authority 
of  an  embassy. 

Before  them  (ii.,  2)  refers  indefinitely  to  the  Christians  of 
Jerusalem  ;  and  then  the  added  clause,  ' '  but  privately  before 
them  that  were  of  repute,"  is  either  an  explanatory  limita- 
tion or  a  description  of  a  second  meeting,  in  which  matters 
may  have  been  discussed  more  in  detail  with  the  leaders  of 
the  church.  So  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  condensed  and 
rather  confused  account,  the  latter  seems  the  more  probable. 
The  result  of  the  first,  more  public  meeting  was  doubtful, 
owing  to  the  efforts  of  the  false  brethren,  and  it  seemed  for 
a  moment  as  if  Paul's  efforts  might  be  fruitless.  He  there- 
fore sought  for  a  more  private  interview,  and  from  the  "  pil- 

'  See  some  further  considerations  in  my  little  commentary  on  Gala- 
tians,  published  by  the  Sunday-School  Association,  1893,  before  the 
appearance  of  Professor  Ramsay's  discussion. 


2o8  GALA  TIANS  ii.,  2-5. 

lars  "  of  the  church  he  received  a  complete  acknowledgment 
of  his  Gentile  Gospel. 

Who  were  of  repute  (ii.,  2). — There  is  nothing  sarcastic  in 
this  phrase  ;  but  from  its  repeated  use  {vv.  6  and  9)  we  may 
perhaps  infer  that  it  is  quoted  from  his  opponents. 

Should  be  rumiing,  or  had  run,  in  vain  (ii.,  2). — It  is  clear 
that  things  had  reached  a  crisis  which  gave  Paul  consider- 
able anxiet^^  An  adverse  decision  on  the  part  of  the  primi- 
tive Apostles,  though  it  would  not  have  shaken  his  own 
faith,  would  probably  have  reduced  the  Gentile  mission  to  a 
nullity,  and  changed  the  fortunes  of  Christianity. 

Was  compelled  to  be  circumcised  (ii.,  3). — The  obvious  mean- 
ing is  that  an  attempt  was  made  to  have  Titus  circumcised, 
but  did  not  succeed.  The  implication  is  that  Titus,  a  com- 
plete Gentile,  was  received  as  such  into  brotherly  communion, 
and  thus  the  whole  principle  of  the  Gentile  mission  was 
practically  conceded  by  the  Jewish  Church,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  fraction. 

And  that  because  of  the  false  brethren  (ii.,  4). — The  con- 
struction is  uncertain  ;  but  it  seems  best  to  begin  a  new  sen- 
tence here,  "  But  on  account  of  the  false  brethren,"  in  which, 
however,  the  construction  is  lost  in  the  endeavour  to  make 
this  parenthetical  statement  as  brief  as  possible.  The  sense 
apparently  is  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  obliged  to  contest 
the  point  owing  to  the  action  of  false  brethren  ;  that  they 
would  not  yield  to  their  demands  even  for  a  moment ;  and 
that  they  were  successful  in  maintaining  their  ground.  If 
we  are  to  interpret  the  words  strictly,  Paul  believed  that 
these  opponents  only  pretended  to  be  Christians,  and  were 
really  Jewish  spies. 

To  spy  out  our  liberty  (ii.,  4)  ;  hoping  perhaps  to  find  some 
immoral  practices,  to  which  they  could  point  as  a  result  of 
abandoning  the  law. 

With  you  (ii.,  5). — If  taken  strictly,  this  implies  that  the 
Galatian  churches  were  already  founded,  and  is  in  favour  of 


".,  6-10.  GALA  TIANS 


209 


the  South-Galatian  theory  ;  but  it  may  mean  generally  "you 
Gentiles,"  whether  already  converted  or  not  at  that  particular 
time. 

From  those  who  were  reputed  to  be  somewhat  (ii.,  6).— This 
resumes  the  account  in  v.  2,  which  was  interrupted  by 
the  reference  to  Titus. 

Whe7i  they  saw  (if.,  7).— Their  minds  were  open  to  convic- 
tion, and  they  saw  that  Paul  was  under  the  Divine  guidance 
as  much  as  Peter.  It  is  neither  said  nor  implied  that  it  was 
difficult  to  convince  them.  Paul,  on  his  side,  assumes  that 
God  wrought  for  Peter  as  truly  as  for  himself. 

Gentiles  .  .  .  cirauncision  (ii.,  9).— This  implies  a  dis- 
tinction in  the  field  of  operations  and  not  a  radical  difference 
of  principle.  The  Jews,  of  course,  would  not  be  taught  to 
abandon  their  law  ;  but  the  acceptance  of  Paul's  position  re- 
duced the  law  to  a  thing  religiously  indifferent,  and  made  its 
observance  simply  an  affair  of  national  custom,— a  great  and 
momentous  change. 

The  poor  (ii.,  10),  meaning  no  doubt  the  poor  Christians 
in  Jerusalem.  How  far  Barnabas  carried  out  this  proviso  we 
are  not  told  ;  for  in  the  next  clause  Paul  changes  the  verb 
into  the  first  person.  The  "I"  is  not  emphatic;  so  that 
there  is  no  implication  to  the  disadvantage  of  Barnabas. 
The  two  Apostles  parted  company  in  undertaking  their  next 
missionary  journey. 

As  a  final  proof  of  his  independence  Paul  relates  how  he  rebuked 
Peter  himself  at  Antioch  (ii.,  11-21). 

In  reproducing  the  substance  of  what  he  said  to  Peter  he 
passes  into  the  doctrinal  portion  of  the  Epistle,  and  fails  to 
tell  us  the  result  of  his  remonstrance.  He  begins  his  ac- 
count as  though  the  Galatians.  must  already  have  heard  of 
Peter's  visit ;  and  if  so,  they  probably  knew  something  of  his 
subsequent  conduct.  Paul  was  alone  in  his  protest,  and, 
if  he  remained  alone,  this  occurrence  must  have  seriously 


2IO  GALATIANS  ii.,  11-13. 

damaged  his  cause.  We  caunot  doubt  that  the  defection  of 
Barnabas  was  temporary  ;  and  if  Peter's  conduct  was  really 
due  to  fear,  we  must  believe  that  he  returned  to  a  better 
mind.  The  event  may  have  made  the  more  spiritual  princi- 
ple, on  which  he  had  been  half  unconsciously  acting,  clearer 
to  his  thought. 

He  stood  condemned  (ii.,  Il)  ;  that  is,  by  his  conduct.  It 
has  also  been  explained  as  referring  to  the  condemnation 
pronounced  by  the  wiser  members  of  the  church.  But  there 
is  nothing  in  the  context  to  suggest  this. 

He  did  eat  (ii.,  12). — The  Greek  tense  implies  continu- 
ance, "  he  was  in  the  habit  of  eating."  He  thus  disregarded 
legal  scruples  about  things  clean  and  unclean.  Pious  Jews 
would  not  eat  with  Gentiles,  who  were  regarded  as  sinners  ; 
and  especially  they  were  forbidden  to  partake  of  the  bread, 
oil,  and  wine  of  Gentiles,  lest  they  should  be  brought  into 
connection  with  idolatry.'  It  was  necessary,  however,  to 
religious  unity  for  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  to  eat  to- 
gether in  their  love  feasts,  and  if  James  meant  to  prohibit 
this  absolutely,  there  was  little  meaning  in  giving  the  right 
hand  of  fellowship  to  Paul.  The  account  in  Acts  relieves 
the  difficult3^  The  Gentiles  were  required  to  observe  some 
small  rules  in  regard  to  food,  so  as  not  to  offend  Jew- 
ish scruples.  The  Jewish  Christians  at  Antioch,  including 
■  Peter,  may  have  had  no  such  .scruples,  and  hence  the  agree- 
ment arrived  at  in  Jerusalem  may  have  become  a  dead 
letter.  Some  supposition  of  this  kind  seems  needed  to  ex- 
plain the  defection  of  Barnabas,  who  had  so  lately  stood  side 
by  side  with  Paul  in  the  battle  for  freedom. 

Dissembled  .  .  .  dissimulation  (ii.,  13). — The  original 
charges  them  with  hypocrisy, — a  word  which  our  translators 
did  not  hesitate  to  apply  to- the  Pharisees.  It  was  the  hy- 
pocrisy that   roused  Paul's   indignation  ;    with    a   genuine 

'  Weber,  y?/rt'.  Thcol.,  p.  59. 


ii.,  14-16.  GALA  riANS  2 1 1 

scruple  he  would  have  dealt  tenderly.  No  language  could 
assert  more  stronglj^  Peter's  agreement  in  principle  with 
Paul. 

Livest  as  do  the  Gentiles  (ii,,  1 4),  referring  not  to  the 
pre.sent  moment,  but  to  Peter's  habitual  manner  of  life  be- 
fore the  men  came  from  James. 

How  compellest  thou  the  Gentiles  ?  (ii.,  14),  as  he  was  doing 
indirectly  by  refusing  to  eat  with  them  unless  they  judaised. 

Not  sinners  of  the  Getitiles  (ii.,  15). — Paul  speaks  from 
the  Jewish  point  of  view.  Gentiles  were  outside  the  cove- 
nant ;  but  he  and  Peter  had  all  the  advantages  that  Judaism 
could  give,  and  still  they  had  come  to  recognise  the  futility 
of  the  law  for  justification. 

Inlawing  that  a  man  is  not  justified  by  the  works  of  the  law 
(ii.,  16). — I  think  the  marginal  reading  "works  of  law"  is 
better.  No  doubt  the  Mosaic  law  is  meant,  but  it  is  re- 
garded in  its  character  of  laii\  so  that  the  proposition  is  in 
principle  made  universal.  Works  done  merely  to  fulfil  a 
law  cannot  justify,  that  is,  cannot  make  a  man  truly  right- 
eous in  the  judgment  of  God.  The  full  meaning  of  this 
statement  will  become  apparent  in  the  course  of  the  Epistle, 
and  still  more  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

Save  through  faith  (ii.,  16). — These  words  must  not  be 
coiniected  with  "works  of  law,"  but  only  with  "not 
justified." 

Faith  in  fesus  Christ  .  .  .  faith  in  Christ  (ii.,  16). — The 
Greek  is  "faith  of  Jesus  Christ  .  .  ,  faith  of  Christ." 
See  the  note  on  Rom.  iii.,  22.  This  is  the  only  verse  that 
seems  strongly  to  support  the  meaning  "faith  in  Jesus"  ; 
but  it  does  not  require  this,  for  in  order  to  acquire  the  faith 
of  Jesus  one  must  have  faith  in  him.  If  Jesus  gives  us  his 
own  faith,  he  bestows  the  power  of  a  Divine  life,  and  we 
need  no  outward  law.  The  commentators  are  adverse  ;  but 
I  must  judge  of  Paul's  meaning  by  Paul's  usage. 

By  the  works  of  the  law  shall  no  flesh  be  justified  (  ii.    16), 


212  GALATIANS  ii.,  17-19. 

a  phrase  repeated  in  Rom.  iii.,  20.  It  is  perhaps  borrowed, 
as  a  Christian  interpretation,  from  Psalm  cxliii.,  2,  "  in  thy 
sight  shall  no  man  living  be  justified,"  and  is  brought  for- 
ward both  here  and  in  Romans  as  an  accepted  principle. 

While  we  sought  to  be  justified  i?i  Christ  (ii.,  17). — The  ar- 
gument is  intended  for  Peter,  but  is  expressed  in  the  first 
person  so  as  to  make  it  less  offensive.  The  meaning  is, — 
if,  as  your  conduct  implies,  we  have  been  misled  by  Christ 
to  become  mere  sinners  like  the  Gentiles,  it  must  follow  that 
Christ  is  the  minister  of  sin,  and  we  were  wrong  in  thinking 
we  could  find  justification  in  him  ;  but  such  a  supposition  is 
quite  inadmissible. 

I  prove  myself  a  transgressor  (ii.,  18). — As  this  verse  states 
a  principle  in  the  most  general  terms,  without  any  mention 
of  the  law,  I  think  it  must  be  taken  as  a  parenthetical  ex- 
planation of  ' '  were  found  sinners  "  :  If  a  man  build  up  what 
he  pulled  down,  he  thereby  admits  that  he  was  wrong  in 
pulling  down  ;  and  so  you,  by  insisting  on  observances  which 
you  previously  disregarded,  are  declaring  yourself  a  trans- 
gressor in  disregarding  them.  There  is,  however,  another 
explanation  :  Christ  did  not  lead  you  into  sin,  but  you  are 
now  a  transgressor,  for  you  are  violating  the  deepest  prin- 
ciple of  the  law  itself  in  returning  to  it  for  justification. 
This  is  favoured  by  the  "  for  "  of  the  following  verse,  which 
may,  however,  have  a  general  reference  to  what  is  implied 
in  the  preceding  passage, — the  law  is  really  superseded  for 
all  who  truly  apprehend  the  life  in  Christ  and  the  inability 
of  the  law  to  justify  ;  (or  I,  etc. 

/  through  the  law  died  unto  the  law  (ii.,  19). — Again  the 
absence  of  the  articles  in  the  Greek  shows  that  we  must 
look  for  something  in  the  quality  of  law  as  such  to  lead  to 
the  dying  to  law.  It  is  its  characteristic  effect  to  give  the 
knowledge  of  sin  (Rom.  iii.,  20),  but  not  the  power  of  right- 
eousness ;  and  therefore  it  proclaims  its  own  transitory 
nature,  and  points  to  something  beyond  itself;  and  that  is,  a 


ii.,  20,  21.  GALATIANS  213 

living  unto  God,  life  in  the  abiding  consciousness  of  His 
presence  and  under  the  leading  of  His  Spirit,  the  life  of 
faith. 

/  have  bcai  crucified  with  Christ  (ii.,  20),  a  very  strong 
figure  to  express  the  completeness  with  which  the  believer 
shares  the  self-renunciation  of  Christ.  He  has  died  to  the 
old  self,  to  the  world,  and  to  the  law  as  completely  as  if  he 
had  been  nailed  with  Christ  upon  the  cross,  and  passed  with 
him  into  the  life  of  glorified  spirits. 

Yet  I  live  (ii.,  20). — I  think  the  preference  must  be 
given  to  the  translation  adopted  by  the  American  Revisers  in 
their  text,  and  by  the  English  in  the  margin.  It  is  no 
longer  "  I,"  the  old  self,  following  my  own  will,  that  live  ; 
Christ  is  the  source  and  rule  of  my  activity,  reproducing  his 
life  in  mine.  Paul  was  still,  however,  "in  the  flesh,"  and 
therefore  had  to  live  the  life,  not  of  vision,  but  of  faith. 
That  faith  was  the  faith  "  of  the  Son  of  God  "  (so  it  should 
be  translated),  that  triumphant  faith  which  led  him  through 
the  agony  of  the  cross  into  the  glorified  life  beyond.  This 
faith  was  communicated  through  the  persuasive  power  of 
love,  felt  and  appropriated  individually, — "loved  me," 
spoken  out  of  the  fulness  of  grateful  devotion.  "Gave 
himself,"  the  utmost  that  anyone  can  give."  "For  me" 
means  "on  my  behalf."  The  preposition  is  the  same  as 
when  Peter  says  "  I  will  lay  down  my  life  for  thee  "  (John 
xiii.,  37). 

/  do  not  make  void  the  grace  of  God  (ii.,  2l),  as  I  should 
do  if  I  insisted  on  the  law  as  necessary  to  acceptance  with 
Him  ;  for  legal  exaction  and  forgiving  love  are  antithetical  to 
one  another.  The  following  cla,use  makes  this  clear.  If 
the  law  was  the  sufficient  source  of  righteousness,  then  the 

'  As  St.  Gregory  sa\-s,  "  et  fortasse  laboriosum  non  estbomini  relin- 
quere  sua  ;  sed  valcle  laboriosum  est  reliuquere  semetipsum."  Quoted 
by  Pere  Grou,  Hidden  Life  of  the  Soul,  in  the  Library  of  Spiritual 
Works  for  English  Catholics,  p.  177. 


214  GALAT/AXS  iii..  i.  2. 

manifestation  of  Divine  love  on  the  cross  was  fiitile.  Paul 
saw  that  Christ  had  done  much  more  than  call  men.  as  Johu 
the  Baptist  had  done,  to  repent  and  fulfil  their  moral  obliga- 
tions ;  he  had  introduced  a  new  spirit  of  life,  the  spirit  of 
holv"  love  and  self-renunciation  in  communion  with  God. 
and  through  this  life  he  had  made  manifest  the  love  of  God. 
who  fireelj-  forgives  those  who  turn  to  Him  in  faith.  Before 
this  life  of  filial  communion  the  whole  structure  of  mere 
legal  righteousness  collapsed.  If  this  was  not  so.  if  men 
after  all  had  ever\"tliing  they  required  in  the  law.  then  Christ 
threw  away  his  life  for  nothing. — a  conclusion  which  the 
warmhearted  Peter  could  not  accept  any  more  than  Paul.' 

We  now  enter  on  the  doctrinal  argument  of  the  Epistle  (iii.,  WX 

It  is  immediately  suggested  by  the  preceding  passage. 
and  the  transition  is  marked  b\'  the  direct  appeal  to  the 
Galarians. 

The  Apostle  begins  with  an  appeal  to  the  spiritual  experience  of 
his  readers  (iii.,  1-5).  They  owed  all  their  higher  life  to  faith  ;  yet 
now^  they  are  sinking  into  law. 

J\v/:s/:  (iii^  l). — The  GAL^tians  were  a  quick-witted 
people,  but  often  acted  foolishl\-  because  they  did  not  apply 
their  understanding  steadily  to  the  question  before  them. 

Bewitch  (iiL,  l). — Their  folly  in  the  present  case  was  so 
extraordinary  that  it  seemed  Uke  enchantment  from  an  e\nl 
eye.  From  this  theV  might  have  kept  themselves  by  fixing 
their  eyes  on  the  Crucified,  who  had  been  presented  so  vividly 
before  them.  The  word  ' '  crucified  '  *  takes  us  back  to  the 
words  "  I  have  been  crucified  with  Christ."  There  was  the 
Divine  love  beseeching  them ;  there  the  secret  of  eternal  life : 
how  could  they  turn  fi-om  it  ? 

Rcceiitd yc  the  Spirit  (iii,,  2). — We  read  in  Acts  how  the 

'  Compare  Ignatius.  TraL  x..  Scotiidr  ovr  a.XtArif6xeo. 


iii.,  2-5.  GALATIANS 


215 


Holy  Spirit  fell  on  those  who  were  moved  by  the  preaching 
of  the  Apostles  ;  and  so  Paul  refers  here  to  the  vivid  moment 
when  the  reality  of  God  and  the  nearness  of  His  love  were 
first  keenly  felt.  The  new,  exalted  faith  came  in  those  days 
with  overwhelming  force. 

The  hearing  of  faith  (or  the  message  of  faith,  iii.,  2). — 
Whichever  translation  we  adopt,  the  general  meaning  is  the 
.same.  It  was  not  by  doing  works  of  law,  but  by  hearing 
the  tones  of  faith,  as  the  Christian  preacher  delivered  his 
message,  that  their  own  faith  was  kindled,  and  the  Spirit 
received. 

Are  ye  noiv  perfected  in  the  flesh  ?  (iii,,  3). — The  force  of 
the  present  tense  should  be  given  more  distinctly,  "are  ye 
now  being  made  perfect  ?  ' '  The  force  of  the  antithesis  may 
be  thus  expressed  in  modern  language  :  Having  begun  with 
the  higher  life,  are  you  seeking  perfection  through  the 
lower  ?  Having  known  the  power  of  inward  and  spiritual 
religion,  are  you  giving  yourselves  up  to  that  which  is  formal 
and  external  ?  "  The  flesh  "  need  not  refer  to  circumcision, 
but  denotes  generally  that  side  of  our  nature  which  is 
opposed  to  the  spiritual. 

He  therefore  (iii.,  5) ;  that  is,  God,  who  does  not  give  His 
Spirit  through  carnal  ceremonies  (for  it  was  to  these  that  the 
Galatians  were  falling  away),  but  through  the  hearing  of 
faith. 

Worketh  miracles  among  yojt  (iii.,  5).— I  think  the  Greek 
rather  implies  "  works  within  you  "  (compare  i  Cor.  xii.,  6), 
and  that  the  reference  is  to  the  supernatural  exaltation 
which  manifested  itself  through  unusual  "  powers  "  (trans- 
lated "miracles")  in  the  first  believers. 

We  now  proceed  to  an  argument  founded  on  the  case  of  Abraham 
(iii.,  6-18). 

To  him  the  promise,  which  was  to  be  fulfilled  in  the  ad- 


2i6  GALATIANS  iii.,  6-8. 

vent  of  the  Messiah,  was  made.  Who,  then,  were  his  true 
children  and  heirs,  the  men  of  faith  or  the  men  of  law  ? 
The  Judaisers  maintained  the  latter,  and  thought  the  Gentiles 
could  be  brought  within  the  covenant  only  by  submission  to 
the  law.  In  controverting  their  position  Paul  uses  argu- 
ments which  in  form  are  much  less  adapted  to  our  time  and 
modes  of  thought  than  to  his  own,  but  which  rest  ultimately 
on  great  spiritual  principles.  The  argument  is  introduced 
abruptly,  but  is  founded  on  the  implied  answer  to  the  pre- 
vious question  : — You  know  in  your  own  experience  that  the 
Spirit  comes  through  the  hearing  of  faith  ;  it  was  always  so, 
even  in  the  case  of  Abraham. 

Believed  God  (iii.,  6). — This  translation  conceals  the  con- 
nection of  thought.  The  Greek  is  the  verb  of  which 
"  faith"  is  the  noun,  and  implies  more  of  moral  trust  than 
of  intellectual  assent.  Abraham  had  such  trust  in  the  truth 
and  power  of  God  that  he  believed  His  promise.  This  quo- 
tation from  Gen.  xv.,  6  is  introduced  as  one  which  must  be 
quite  familiar  to  the  Gentile  readers.  The  Old  Testament 
was  the  first  Christian  Bible.  Faith  is  reckoned  for  right- 
eousness, not  because  it  is  an  arbitrary  substitute  for  it,  but 
because  it  is  the  source  and  power  of  real  and  inward  right- 
eousness, and  shows,  in  spite  of  external  faults,  that  the 
heart  is  right  with  God.  What  God  judges  to  be  so  is  so ; 
for  His  "judgment  is  according  to  truth." 

They  which  be  of  faith  (iii.,  7),  or,  to  give  the  sense  more 
fully,  those  who  find  in  faith  the  source  and  principle  of 
their  life.  The  spiritual  children  of  Abraham  can  be  only 
those  who  share  his  characteristic  attribute.  The  "faith  " 
referred  to  must  be  the  same  as  his,  a  childlike  confidence 
in  God,  which  hears  His  word  speaking  within,  and  im- 
plicitly trusts  it. 

The  Scripture,  foreseeing  (iii.,  8). — This  personification  of 
the  Scripture  is  without  a  parallel  in  the  New  Testament, 
though  it  occurs  in  Jewish  writings.     ' '  The  Scripture  saith ' ' 


iii.,  8-10.  GALATIANS  217 

is  hardly  analogous,  though  the  expression  ' '  the  Scripture 
saith  to  Pharaoh  "  (Rom.  ix.,  17)  should  be  noticed.  There 
is  a  personification,  but  not  so  marked,  in  v.  22.' 

Woidd j iistify  (iii.,  8)  ;  more  correctly,  "justifies,"  stating 
a  general  principle  of  the  Divine  action. 

/;/  thee  shall  all  the  nations  [better,  Gentiles]  be  blessed 
(iii.,  8). — The  quotation  blends  Gen.  xviii.,  18,  and  xii.,  3. 
Compare  "  in  thee  "  with  the  phrase  "  in  Christ." 

Are  blessed  (iii.,  9). — This  is  an  important  word  in  the 
argument,  being  opposed  to  the  curse  of  the  law.  It  is  vir- 
tually to  faith  that  the  promise  of  blessedness  in  Abraham 
is  given. 

Are  binder  a  airse  (iii.,  lo). — By  this  verse  all  except  the 
men  of  faith  are  excluded  from  the  blessing.  Paul  does  not 
notice  the  fact  that  in  the  very  next  verse  (Deut.  xxviii.,  i) 
to  the  one  which  he  quotes  {ib.,  xxvii.,  26)  a  blessing  is 
pronounced  on  those  who  observe  all  the  commandments. 
But  it  was  an  axiom  that  "  by  works  of  law  shall  no  flesh 
be  justified,"  and  therefore  the  blessing  seemed  to  be  offered 
on  impossible  conditions.  No  doubt  the  mass  of  men  would 
take  these  words  in  a  large  sense,  and  indeed  it  was  admitted 
in  the  schools  that  God  would  strike  a  balance  between  good 
and  evil  deeds.  But  to  a  keenly  sen.sitive  conscience,  with 
its  visions  of  ideal  perfection,  the  offer  of  a  blessing  on  the 
condition  of  absolute  obedience  could  only  be  a  source  of 
despair,  and  the  curse  pronounced  on  disobedience  stood  out 
in  all  its  horror,  a  haunting  vision  of  intolerable  judgment. 
The  curses  threatened  in  Deut.  xxviii.,  15  sqq.,  should  be 
read  if  we  wish  to  understand  Paul's  experience  of  spiritual 
agony.     In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  the  Jews  are  repre- 

'  We  may  notice  the  strong  personification  in  Clem.  Al.,  Strom.,  i., 
28,  p.  425  (Potter),  Tf  ypaq)TJ  Toiovrovi  rivdi  ijudi  SicxXeHTtnovS 
ovTGoi  iOeXovda  yevs60ai  TtapaivTs.  Compare  Cyril.  Hieros., 
TtpoeiSev  if  ypacprf  vd  itpdyixava  [Catech.  xiii.,  10),  and  npo/iXi- 
TCovda  Tf  TtpoipijTiH?)  ^apiS  {Catech.,  x.,  12). 


2i8  GALATIANS  iii.,  11-13. 

sented  as  under  the  curse  because,  in  the  Dispersion,  it  was 
impossible  to  fulfil  all  the  commandments.' 

By  the  law  (iii.,  ii) ;  literall}^,  "in  law,"  a  universal  pro- 
position :  when  everything  is  measured  by  strictly  legal 
requirements,  justification  is  impossible.  This  is  proved  by 
the  statement  of  Habakkuk  ii.,  4,  in  which  it  is  laid  down 
that  the  principle  of  life  is  faith.  The  prophet  referred  only 
to  the  time  of  the  Chaldean  invasion  ;  but  the  Apostle  regards 
it  as  the  expression  of  a  general  principle. 

By  faith  (iii.,  Il)  ;  literally,  "from  faith."  The  same 
preposition  is  used  in  the  following  sentence,  "the  law  is 
not  from  faith  "  (iii.,  12).  The  verbal  connection  is  lost  in 
the  Revisers'  translation.  This  statement  is  proved  by  a 
quotation  from  Levit.  xviii.,  5.  The  law  aims  at  the  regu- 
lation of  outward  acts,  and  there  its  function  ends.  Real 
righteousness  springs  from  a  deeper  source. 

Christ  redeemed  us  from  the  citrse  of  the  law  (iii.,  13). — This 
verse  affords  a  fruitful  theme  for  controversial  theology.  We 
can  do  no  more  here  than  endeavour  to  trace  a  probable 
line  of  thought  in  the  Apostle's  mind.  The  fundamental 
fact  is  that  as  a  Pharisee,  seeking  for  perfect  righteousness, 
he  felt  himself  under  a  curse  ;  as  a  Christian,  longing  for  the 
fulness  of  the  Spirit,  he  felt  this  no  more,  but  only  the  love 
of  God  shed  abroad  in  his  heart.  How,  within  his  own 
spiritual  experience,  did  the  change  come  about?  "We  must 
start  with  the  quotation  from  Deut.  xxi.,  23,  which,  in  the 
original,  is,  "  he  that  is  hanged  is  cursed  of  God  "  [literally, 
"  the  curse  of  God  "].  To  the  Pharisee  this  was  conclusive 
proof  that  Jesus  was  not  the  Messiah,  for  the  Messiah  must 
be  "blessed"  not  "cursed."  But  when  the  Son  of  God 
was  revealed  within  him,  and  he  saw  in  the  crucifixion  at 
once  the  most  absolute  submission  to  the  Divine  will  and 
the  indwelling  of  God's  love  in  the  heart  of  a  man,  he  had 

'  VI.,  25. 


Hi.,  13,14.  GALATIANS 


2T9 


in  some  way  to  reconcile  this  new  view  with  the  ancient 
curse.  Tlie  simplest  way  was  to  follow  out  a  line  of  thought 
which  was  suggested  by  many  other  considerations.  The 
Beloved  could  not  be  really  cursed  by  God  ;  and  therefore  it 
followed  that  the  law,  however  Divine  in  its  origin  and  pur- 
pose, was  introduced  to  meet  a  temporary  condition  in  the 
spiritual  progress  of  the  world,  and,  when  the  Christ  came, 
its  course  was  run.  "  The  curse  of  God  ' '  had  become  merely 
"  the  curse  of  the  law,"  a  thing  of  no  validity  for  those  who 
shared  the  self-renunciation  of  faith  and  love,  and  spiritually 
were  crucified  with  Christ. 

Redeemed  (iii.,  13):  see  the  note  on  Rom.  iii.,  24.'  Us 
(iii.,  13)  ;  that  is,  Jews.     See  iv.,  5. 

That  2ipo7i  the  Gentiles  might  come  the  blessiiig  of  Abraham 
(iii.,  14). — The  blessing  pronounced  upon  Abraham  could 
come  to  the  Gentiles  only  through  the  abrogation  of  the  law, 
whereby  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  placed  upon  the  same  spir- 
itual level,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  was  opened  to  all 
believers. 

That  7ve  might  receive  (iii.,  14).— This  clause  is  co-ordinate 
with  the  preceding,  and  opens  a  yet  wider  view.  All  Christ- 
ians alike  were  to  receive  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise. 

Having  reached  this  climax,  Paul  meets  an  objection  which 
might  be  readily  urged,  that  the  promises  made  to  Abraham 
had  been  superseded  by  the  coming  of  the  law  (iii.,  15-18). 
The  reply  is  that,  when  once  a  covenant  is  ratified,  its  con- 
ditions cannot  be  altered.  This  is  true  of  a  human  covenant ; 
much  more,  of  the  Divine.  It  was  a  Jewish  belief  that  the 
generations  before  the  giving  of  the  law  lived  through  the 

^'  Compare  the  Letter  on  the  Martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  |  2,  8id  /.nai 
r7-,pa<;  riiv  aibiviov  jaJAaOiv  IciryopaZd/iFrot,  said  of  martyrs  gener- 
ally. Such  figures  are  of  common  occurrence.  In  g  10  Polycarp  is 
compared  to  "  a  noble  ram  for  sacrifice,  a  whole  burnt  offering,"  and 
hehimself  said  7rpo65exQ£iTfv     .    .     .    tv  tjvGia.  niovi  uai  TtpoddeKr^ 


220  GALA  TIANS  iii.,  15-18. 

grace  of  God,  but  afterwards  men  had  to  earn  their  reward 
by  keeping  the  commandments/ 

I  speak  after  the  7nanner  of  men  (iii.,  15)  :  that  is,  in  what 
follows  I  avail  myself  of  a  human  analogy. 

To  Abraham  .  .  .  a?id  to  his  seed  {iii. y  16). — Reference 
is  made  to  the  "  seed  "  in  order  to  show  that  the  promise  was 
not  fulfilled  before  the  coming  of  the  law.  It  was  given  long 
before  the  law,  but  the  fulfilment  was  much  later,  and  there- 
fore the  law  could  only  be  regarded  as  an  episode  which  did 
not  alter  the  conditions.  "  Promises  "  is  in  the  plural  be- 
cause the  promise  was  repeated  on  different  occasions.  The 
reference  to  the  "seed"  shows  that  the  passages  in  Paul's 
mind  are  Gen.  xiii.,  15  and  xvii.,  8.  The  argument  is 
objected  to  because  "seed,"  in  the  sense  of  posterity,  is  a 
collective  word  (in  Hebrew  and  Greek  as  well  as  in  English), 
and  in  the  plural  it  is  used  only  in  the  literal  sense  of  seeds. 
Paul  himself  follows  the  proper  usage  in  v.  29  ;  and  when 
he  reconstructs  the  argument  in  Rom.  iv.,  13  sgq.,  he  does 
not  repeat  this  portion  of  it. 

jFo74r  hundred  and  thirty  years  (iii.,  17)- — In  giving  this 
number  as  including  the  residence  "  in  the  land  of  Canaan  " 
Paul  follows  the  i,xx  rendering  of  Exodus  xii.,  40.  The 
Hebrew  limits  this  period  to  the  sojourn  in  Egypt. 

Law  .  .  .  promise  (iii.,  18). — These  are  antithetical 
in  principle,  law  throwing  the  conditions  entirely  upon  the 
voluntary  efforts  of  men,  the  promise  being  an  unconditional 
expression  of  a  gracious  purpose.  The  expected  blessing 
wzs  promised  to  Abraham  as  a  gift  of  grace, — for  this  is  the 
force  of  the  word  translated  "  granted."  We  should  observe 
that  Paul  sets  aside  in  a  most  emphatic  way  the  idea  that 
Christ  or  anyone  else  had  to  fulfil  certain  legal  obligations  in 
order  that  grace  might  have  free  course  to  act.  If  he  became 
man's  substitute,  and  had  to  bear  the  curse  of  the  law  as 

'  Weher,  Jiid.  Theol.,  p.  304. 


iii.,  ip.  GALATIANS  221 

a  condition  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise,   Paul's  whole 
argument  falls  to  pieces. 

Paul  now  proceeds  to  deal  with  a  question  which  arises  very 
naturally  out  of  the  foregoing  views.  Was  any  room  left  for  the 
law  in  the  providential  purpose  of  God  ?  Was  it  adverse  to  His 
promise,  and  introduced  perhaps  by  some  alien  power?  (iii.,  19- 
iv,,  7). 

At  a  later  time  an  extreme  party  actually  maintained  that 
the  God  of  the  Old  Testament  was  not  the  God  of  the  New, 
and  thus  completely  broke  the  continuity  of  history.  But 
Paul  never  lost  his  faith  in  the  Divine  origin  and  authority 
of  the  law.  History  was  one  continuous  unfolding  of  a 
providential  plan,  a  Divine  evolution  of  the  "  natural  "  into 
the  "spiritual."  His  answer  to  the  question,  then,  is,  in 
substance,  that  the  law  was  a  necessary  instrument  in  the 
education  of  mankind,  but,  being  adapted  to  a  state  of  minor- 
ity, became  obsolete  as  soon  as  men  entered  upon  their  full- 
grown  sonship. 

//  was  added  (iii.,  19),  not  as  a  new  condition  of  the  pro- 
mise (which  he  has  just  shown  to  be  impossible),  but  as  a 
subsidiary  and  temporary  measure. 

Because  of  transgressions  (or,  more  strictly,  for  the  sake  of 
the  transgressions,  iii.,  19). — Transgression,  in  Pauline  lan- 
guage, is  the  violation  of  a  commandment.  Sin,  as  the 
principle  of  moral  evil,  may  exist  apart  from  law  ;  but 
"where  there  is  no  law  neither  is  there  transgression" 
(Rom.  iv.,  15).  The  immediate  effect  of  introducing  a  law, 
therefore,  is  (except  on  the  impossible  supposition  of  its  per- 
fect fulfilment)  to  turn  unconscious  sin  into  wilful  transgres- 
sion. From  this  moment  begins  the  moral  struggle  which 
ends  only  with  a  cry  of  self-despair  as  the  man  commits  him- 
self in  faith  to  God,  and  receives  a  new  birth  from  the  Spirit. 
Thus  by  means  of  law  men  died  to  law,  and  entered  the 
serener  life  brought  into  the  world  by  Christ. 


222  GALATIANS  iii.,  19-21. 

Through  angels  by  the  hand  of  a  mediator  (iii.,  19). — It  was 
a  common  Jewish  belief  that  the  law  was  communicated 
through  angels  (see,  in  the  New  Testament,  Acts  vii.,  35, 
38,  53;  Heb.  ii.,  2).  It  is  said  that  God  came  down  to 
Sinai,  the  one  mountain  that  had  remained  free  from  idola- 
try, attended  by  22,000,  or  according  to  others  600,000,  angels, 
each  holding  a  crown  wherewith  to  crown  the  Israelites,  at 
least  those  who,  on  being  asked,  voluntarily  accepted  the 
law.'  The  mediator  is  of  course  Moses.  This  mediation 
distinguishes  the  law  from  the  promise.  The  latter  was 
made  to  Abraham  and  his  seed  (Christ)  without  any  media- 
tion, and  therefore  its  fulfilment  depended  solely  on  the  faith- 
fulness of  God.  The  law  was  a  compact  between  two,  God 
imposing  and  man  accepting  certain  conditions  through  their 
respective  representatives.  There  is  nothing  in  the  context 
to  indicate  that  Paul  intends  by  these  words  either  to  magnify 
or  to  depreciate  the  law. 

Nozv  a  mediator  is  not  of  one ;  but  God  is  one  (iii.,  20). — 
The  words  are  clear  ;  but  the  argument  is  so  obscure  that 
there  are  said  to  be  no  less  than  430  different  interpreta- 
tions of  it.  Here  I  can  only  suggest  the  following  :  Media- 
tion implies  two  parties  and  an  agreement  between  them. 
But  God,  the  author  of  both  promise  and  law,  is  one.  Con- 
sequently it  might  be  argued  that  the  law  was  God's  own 
proposed  supplement  to  the  promise,  and  became,  through 
nuitual  consent,  the  condition  under  which  alone  the  pro- 
mise could  be  fulfilled.  This  has  at  least  the  advantage  of 
explaining  the  following  question,  "  Is  the  law  then,"  since 
it  rests  on  a  mediated  agreement,  "against  the  promise  of 
God?" 

God /orb  id  (iii.,  2l). — This  strong  negation  of  the  question 
shows  that  Paul  looked  upon  the  promise  and  the  law  as 
alike  Divine.  The  difficulty  arising  from  their  apparent  an- 
tagonism is  set  aside  by  maintaining  that  they  had  different 
'  Weber,  Jud.  Theol. ,  pp.  26S  sqg. 


iii.,  22,  23.  GALATIANS 


223 


ends  in  view.  Law  was  intrinsically  unable  to  produce  the 
highest  spiritual  life.  If  it  could  have  done  so,  then  right- 
eousness would  really  (as  the  Judaisers  imagined)  have  its 
source  in  law,  and  tlie  promise  would  have  a  rival,  or  indeed 
be  superseded,  for  righteousness  cannot  spring  from  two 
fundamentally  different  principles.  We  may  compare  the 
express  rabbinical  teaching,  that  the  words  of  the  law  give 
life  to  the  world.' 

Howbeit  {{{{.,  22)  :  better,  "but,"  introducing  the  opposite 
of  the  previous  clause.  On  a  certain  supposition  righteous- 
ness would  have  been  of  the  law  ;  but  the  contrary  is  the 
case,  and  therefore  the  supposition  falls. 

All  things  (iii.,  22). — The  neuter  gives  greater  universality 
to  the  statement,  as  though  sin  had  been  the  one  dominant 
fact  in  the  universe. 

Promise  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  (iii.,  22).— "  Promise  " 
here  is  equivalent  to  "  the  promised  blessing."  The  follow- 
ing words  are  literally  "  out  of  faith  of  Jesus  Christ  "  ;  that 
is,  arising  out  of  Christ's  faith  (see  the  note  on  ii.,  16).  The 
promise  was  made  to  Abraham,  the  man  of  faith,  and  to  his 
seed,  Christ,  who  restored  the  life  of  faith,  and  thereby  made 
the  realisation  of  the  promise  possible.  Through  him,  then, 
the  blessing  came,  and  was  extended  to  all  who,  by  believing 
on  him,  shared  his  faith. 

Before  faith  came  (iii.,  23).— This  clearly  refers  not  to  a 
mere  transference  of  belief  from  one  thing  to  another,  but  to 
a  new  principle  of  life  which  came  into  the  world  in  Christ. 
It  had  appeared,  indeed,  in  Abraham  ;  but  then  withdrew, 
awaiting  "the  fulness  of  time  "  for  its  perfect  revelation. 

Kept  in  ward  (iii.,  23).— The  law  acted  the  part  of  a 
gaoler,  imposing  restraints,  but  not  liberating  from  the  prison- 
house  of  sin.  Yet  all  was  a  preparation  for  the  faith  which 
was  to  be  manifested  to  the  world  in  Christ.  Paul  includes 
the  Gentiles  as  "  kept  in  ward  under  law,"  and  in  so  doing 
'  Weber, ///fl'.  T/icot.,  p.  22. 


2  24  GALA  TUNS  iii.,  24-26. 

follows  the  rabbinical  doctrine  that  the  law  was  given,  not 
only  to  the  Israelites,  but  to  all  nations,  and  was  therefore 
communicated  on  neutral  ground,  outside  of  Palestine,  and 
in  such  a  wa^-  that  every  nation  heard  the  voice  of  God  in  its 
own  language.*  The  Gentiles,  however,  did  not  receive  it, 
and  consequently  were  excluded  from  communion  with 
God.' 

The  law  hath  been  our  tutor  (iii.,  24). — The  same  idea  is 
expressed  under  a  gentler  figure.  The  ' '  tutor  ' '  was  a  slave 
who  had  the  care  of  children,  and,  among  other  duties,  con- 
ducted them  to  school.  Christ,  however,  is  not  here  re- 
garded as  the  schoolmaster,  for  there  is  no  allusion  to  his 
teaching,  and  the  words  "  to  bring  us  "  are  not  in  the  Greek. 
The  phrase  briefly  suggests  that  the  law  kept  Christ  in  view, 
as  the  one  to  whom  we  should  come  when  the  time  of  pupil- 
age was  past. 

Jjcstijied  by  faith  (iii.,  24).—"  Faith  "  is  emphatic,— "  that 
from  faith  we  may  be  justified,"  and  not  from  the  law.  This 
follows  from  our  attaining  to  Christ,  and  thereby  entering 
into  that  spiritual  principle  of  faith  which  was  the  root  of 
his  life. 

Now  that  faith  is  come  (iii.,  ?5). — This  is  a  solemn  assertion 
of  the  advent  of  a  new  principle  of  life  into  the  world.  It  is 
one  in  which  the  soul  is  no  longer  under  leadership,  but 
rises  by  faith  into  direct  communion  with  God,  and  there- 
fore lives  out  of  its  own  free  conscience  and  judgment,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

In  Christ  fesus  (iii.,  26). — The  Greek  preposition  shows 
that  Christ  is  not  here  regarded  as  the  object  of  faith,  for 
which  reason  the  Revisers  have  inserted  a  comma.  We  may 
connect  the  words  with  the  whole  clause, — "  In  Christ  Jesus 
you  are  all  sons  of  God  through  faith," — or,  if  we  connect 
them  with  faith,  the  meaning  will  be  "  the  faith  which  exists 

'Weber,  yw./.  Thcol.,  pp.  \^  sqq.  °  lb.,  p.  57. 


iii.,  27-29.  GALA  TIANS 


225 


in  Christ,"  and  therefore  also  in  you  who  have  put  on  Christ. 
The  former  construction  suits  the  next  verse  better. 

Baptised  mto  Christ  (iii.,  27).— Christ  is  here  represented 
as  the  spiritual  element  into  which  believers  were  plunged, 
as  it  were,  by  baptism  ;  and  then  again,  by  a  figure  which  is 
found  in  other  writers,  he  is  compared  to  a  garment  with 
which  a  man  is  clothed.  In  Rom.  xiii.,  14,  the  readers  are 
exhorted  to  put  him  on,  as  though  they  had  not  already 
done  so  in  baptism.  Spiritual  conditions  are  ideal,  begun  at 
some  definite  moment,  yet  needing  constant  faithfulness  to 
bring  them  to  their  perfection. 

}'^  are  all  one  man  (iii.,  2%).— Man  is  inserted  to  show 
that  the  Greek  word  for  "  one  "  is  masculine.  All  believers 
are  blended,  as  it  were,  into  a  single  personality,  so  that  the 
old  distinctions  cease  to  exist.  In  i  Cor.  iii.,  8,  "he  that 
planteth  and  he  that  watereth  are  one,"  the  word  is  neuter, 
implying  not  so  much  the  complete  union  and  harmony  of 
inward  life  as  identity  of  aim  and  function.  Each  was 
simply  an  instrument  in  the  hand  of  God,  employed  for  the 
same  great  purpose. 

We  should  notice  the  emphatic  way  in  which  Paul  here 
places  man  and  woman  on  the  same  spiritual  level,  and  we 
should  check  by  this  statement  passages  in  which  he  assigns 
to  woman  an  inferior  position.  He  asserts  unequivocally  the 
ideal  result  of  his  principles.  But  in  practice  ideals  must  be 
slowly  realised,  and  an  attempt  to  grasp  them  outwardly 
often  only  violates  them  inwardly.  A  servile  war  to  main- 
tain the  equality  of  slave  and  master  would  have  horrified 
him  ;  and  he  was  repelled  when  women  asserted  their  equality 
with  men  through  a  breach  of  feminine  decorum.  The  expres- 
sion of  his  views  is  qualified  by  the  occasion,  but  the  varying 
expressions  are  due  to  his  strong  grasp  of  the  same  spiritual 
reality. 

Then  are  ye  Abraham' s  seed  (iii.,  29). — He  returns  for  a 
moment  to  the  case  of  Abraham,  iu  order  to  state  as  a  cou- 


226  GALATIANS  iv.,  1-4. 

elusion  the  proposition  with  which  he  started,  "  the  men  of 
faith  (whether  Jews  or  Gentiles)  are  the  sons  of  Abraham." 
The  Galatian  believers  were  such  by  virtue  of  being  in 
Christ,  and  belonging  to  him.  He  and  all  who  were  his 
were  the  true  spiritual  seed,  and  therefore  heirs  of  the  bless- 
ings which  were  promised  to  Abraham.  This  accorded  with 
the  special  promise,  ' '  in  thee  shall  all  the  Gentiles  be  blessed. ' ' 

Paul  concludes  this  portion  of  his  subject  by  unfolding 
more  distinctly  some  thoughts  implied  in  the  previous  para- 
graph (iv.,  1-7).  The  spiritual,  like  the  natural,  life  had  its 
fixed  times,  and  regulations  adapted  to  the  stage  of  its 
development. 

A  child  (iv.,  l),  or  rather  "a  minor."  Though  by  right 
of  birth  he  is  owner  of  the  whole  property  that  has  been  left 
to  him,  yet,  till  the  time  appointed  for  entering  into  full 
possession  of  the  inheritance,  he  is  virtually  in  the  position 
of  a  slave,  being  subject  to  guardians  of  his  person  and 
stewards  of  the  property. 

We  (iv.,  3),  emphatic,  in  contrast  with  the  heir  just  spoken 
of.  That  the  reference  is  not  confined  to  Jews  seems  proved 
by  the  changes  of  person  in  vv.  5-7,  and  by  the  question 
in  V.  9.  Paul  uses  Jewish  history  to  interpret  the  history  of 
the  world. 

Rudiments  [or,  elements]  of  the  zcorld  (iv.,  3). — Various 
interpretations  are  given.  Probably  the  reference  is  to  an 
elementary  state  of  religion,  such  as  was  observed  in  the 
common  world  of  men.  It  is  clear  from  vv.  9,  10  that  he 
has  chiefly  in  mind  a  ceremonial  religion,  with  its  recurring 
festivals.  As  these  were  determined  by  the  observation  of 
celestial  phenomena,  it  has  been  often  supposed  that  "the 
elements"  are  the  heavenly  bodies.  These,  however,  would 
hardly  be  described  as  "  weak  and  beggarly." 

The  fulness  of  the  time  (iv.,  4),  tlie  moment  which  filled  up 
and  completed  the  appointed  period.  The  idea  of  a  gradual 
providential  growth  is  clearly  implied. 


iv.,  4.  GALA  77 ANS  227 

God  $c7if  forth  his  Son  (iv,,  4). — Commentators  say  that 
these  words  imply  the  pre-existence  of  Christ,  and  it  has 
even  been  said  that  they  can  only  mean  ' '  sent  forth  from 
Himself,"  and  so  involve  the  divine  essence  of  the  Son. 
The  latter  is  snfficiently  refuted  by  the  fact  that  the  word 
translated  "sent  forth  "  is  applied  to  Paul  himself  in  Acts 
xxii.,  21,  and  is  several  times  used  of  prophets  in  the  lxx 
(see,  for  instance,  Jud.  vi.,  8  ;  Ps.  civ.  [cv.J,  26  ;  Jer.  i.,  7  ; 
Kzek.  ii.,  3,  iii.,  6),  to  say  nothing  of  serpents  (Jer.  viii., 
17),  and  of  an  evil  spirit  (Jud.  ix.,  23).  Sending,  however, 
logically  implies  the  pre-existence  of  the  thing  sent ;  but  this 
is  quite  disregarded  in  ordinary  speech.  No  one  infers  the 
pre-existence  of  John  the  Baptist  from  the  fact  that  he  was 
"  sent  from  God  "  (John  i.,  6)  ;  and  in  the  lxx  God  is  said 
to  have  "  sent  forth  "  many  things  which  cannot  well  be  re- 
garded as  pre-existent  ;  for  instance,  "satiety"  (Ps.  cv. 
[cvi.],  15)  ;  "signs  and  wonders"  (Ps.  cxxxiv.  [cxxxv.],  9  ; 
"famine"  (Ezek.  v.,  17,  xiv.,  13;  Amos  viii.,  11);  "corn 
and  wine"  (Joel  ii.,  19);  a  "curse"  (Malachi  ii.,  2). 
Further  to  exemplif}-  the  use  of  language,  we  may  quote  a 
modern  writer.  Tolstoy  says,  "  I  am  urged  to  what  I  do 
only  by  fear  to  fail  in  what  is  required  of  me  by 
Him  who  has  sent  me  into  this  world,  to  whom  I  am  hourly 
expecting  to  return."  '  Put  though  the  words  do  not  point 
to  pre-existence,  they  seem  certainly  to  imply  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  the  Son  of  God  in  a  very  special  .sense,  that  he 
was  .sent  into  the  world  for  a  very  high  purpose,  and  that  he 
came  at  a  time  when  the  world  had  grown  sufficiently  mature 
to  profit  by  his  advent. 

Born  of  a  jcoman  (iv,,  4). — The  Greek  word  does  not 
mean  "born,"  but  conveys  the  idea  of  "becoming,"  and 
might  be  tran.slated  "sprung  from."  The  same  word  is 
used  in  Rom.  i.,  3,  where  it  is  said,  not  that  the  human 
nature,  but  that  the  "  Son  of  God,"  was  "  sprung  from  the 

'  "The  Cbristiau  Teacbiug,"  iu  The  Nczo  Age,  July  14,  1S9S,  p.  218. 


228  GALATIANS  iv.,  5. 

seed  of  David  according  to  the  flesh."  It  seems  to  me  that 
these  passages,  so  far  from  implying  a  pre-existent  Son, 
identify  the  Son  with  the  man  Jesus.  This  identity  is 
essential  to  give  coherence  to  the  argument.  "Sprung 
from  a  woman"  is  a  phrase  which  simply  indicates  the 
reality  of  his  human  nature,  with  perhaps  some  reference  to 
the  weakness  and  lowliness  of  that  nature.  We  may  com- 
pare Mt.  xi.,  II,  and  Job  xiv.,  i,  xxv.,  4,  and  a  rabbinical 
saying,  "  Well  for  him  [Jacob]  who  has  been  born  of  woman 
that  he  has  seen  the  King  of  kings."  '  The  Greek  word  for 
"woman  "  is  generally,  though  not  necessarily^  used  of  a 
wife.  If  Paul  meant  a  virgin,  he  would  almost  certainly 
have  used  that  term,  for  he  himself  distinguishes  the 
"woman"  from  the  "virgin"  (i  Cor.  vii.,  34,  where  our 
translators  render  "wife").^  This  clause  connects  Christ 
with  mankind,  as  the  subsequent  one  connects  him  with  the 
Jews.  As  Paul  conceives  it,  only  one  placed  under  the  law 
could  break  the  power  of  the  law,  and  so  redeem  those  who 
were  under  it. 

That  7ve  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons  (iv.,  5). — "  We  " 
is  general,  including  both  Jewish  and  Gentile  believers. 
Paul's  argument  and  illustration  seem  to  imply  that  men 
were  sons  by  right  of  birth,  though  hitherto  they  had  been  in  a 
state  of  infancy.  If  so,  "  adoption  "  must  refer  to  the  formal 
■  recognition  and  full  bestowal  of  the  privileges  of  sonship. 

The  word  T;/o5£(;/a;  ("  adoption  ")  is  not  very  common,  but  it  un- 
doubtedly means  adoption,  referring  to  those  who  are  sons  ov  ycazd 
q)v6iv,   dWd  Hard  Oadiv.'-^    But  this  distinction  is  nowhere  clearly 

'  WeheTyJud.  T/ieol.,  p.  175. 

''  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  referring  to  John  the  Baptist,  says,  ovh  kv 
yevv7jToi?  TfapOsvooy,  aXXd  yvvaiucSv.  Catcch,,  III.,  6.  In  con- 
nection with  this  passage,  however,  he  sa5's,  i)  vtcxpOsvoS  is  also  called 
yvi'i'f,  XII.,  31,  but  does  so  only  under  the  compulsion  of  his  argu- 
ment. See  also  Philo,  rj  Ini  yEvedei  rsHvooy  6vvo8oi  raS  TtapOerovS 
yvvaiHa?  ditoqjaivet  (De  Cherub.,  §  14). 

'  Cyril  Hierosol.,  Catech.,  III.,  14. 


iv.,  6-9.  GALATIANS  229 

indicated  by  the  Apostle  ;  and  it  would  be  no  great  straining  of  the 
usage  of  the  word,  and  none,  I  think,  of  its  etymological  force,  to 
give  it  the  meaning  suggested  above.  This  meaning  is  suitable  also 
to  Rom.  viii.,  15  and  23,  and  ix.,  4.  • 

Because  yc  are  sons,  etc.  (iv.,  6).— The  sending  forth  of 
the  vSpirit  is  the  act  of  adoption  ;  and  this  takes  place,  not 
becatise  men  are  not  sons,  but  because  they  are.  The  Spirit 
is  the  Spirit  of  God's  Son,  exalting  men  from  their  state  of 
infancy  and  subjection  into  fttll  and  perfect  sonship.  Here 
the  Spirit  is  represented  as  crying;  in  Rom.  viii.,  15,  it  is 
we  who,  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit,  cry,  "Abba, 
Father."  "  Abba  "  is  Aramaic  ;  "  Father,"  Greek.  Thus 
Jew  and  Greek  are  united  in  an  invocation  which  expresses 
the  sum  and  substance  of  the  truest  and  highest  religion. 

Thou  (iv.,  7),  in  the  singular,  so  as  to  bring  the  truth 
home  to  each  individual.  Sonship  is  no  longer  collective,  as 
with  Israel,  but  distributed.  Consequently  each  man  is  an 
heir  of  the  promised  blessing,  and  ought  to  enshrine  within 
himself  the  Divine  life  of  sonship,  which  is  far  above  the 
perishing  forms  of  thought  and  practice  suited  to  the  child- 
hood of  the  race  ;  and  he  is  an  heir,  not  through  his  own 
efforts,  but  through  God,  whose  grace  is  therefore  despised 
when  men  fall  back  upon  the  weak  and  beggarly  elements 
of  a  sensuous  religion. 

Having  concluded  his  argument,  the  Apostle  nov7  pleads  with  the 
Galatians  not  to  turn  back,  in  principle,  to  what  they  had  forsaken, 
reminding  them  of  the  strong  affection  which  they  had  displayed 
towards  himself,  and  warning  them  against  the  narrow  aims  of  the 
false  teachers  (iv.,  8-20). 

At  that  tunc  (iv.,  8),  the  time  wjlien  you  were  bond-serv- 
ants. The  Galatians  were  then  attached  to  a  polytheistic 
religion.  It  is  implied  that  they  had  come  straight  from 
heathenism  to  Christianity. 

Or  rather  to  be  known  of  God  (iv.,  9),  taken,  as  it  were. 


230  GALA  TIANS  iv.,  9-14. 

into  His  knowledge,  suggesting  that  the  initiative  was  on 
the  side  of  God.  Compare  the  words  addressed  to  the  wicked, 
"  I  never  knew  you  "  (Mt.  vii.,  23). 

How  turn  ye  back  again,  etc.  (iv.,  9). — By  these  words 
Paul  places  Judaism  and  heathenism,  not  indeed  on  the 
same  level,  but  within  the  same  category  of  weak  and  ele- 
mentary religions.  He  is,  however,  viewing  them  here 
purely  on  their  ceremonial  side.  The  Galatians  were  re- 
turning to  the  principles  they  had  forsaken,  and  in  adopting 
Jewish  rites  they  must  have  been  moved  by  the  superstitious 
feelings  by  which  they  had  been  actuated  in  their  heathen 
condition.  This  sort  of  ritualism  was  "weak,"  because  it 
imparted  no  moral  strength.  It  was  "beggarly,"  because 
it  was  not  rich  in  spiritual  gifts.  It  was  rudimentary,  be- 
cause it  was  adapted  only  to  a  childish  and  undeveloped 
state.  Childish  men  desire  to  be  thus  in  bondage,  instead 
of  walking  in  the  responsible  freedom  of  Christ. 

Ye  observe  days,  etc.  (iv.  lo). — "  Days  "  are  sabbaths  and 
fast-days  ;  "  months,"  either  new  moons,  or  months  esteemed 
especially  holy  ;  "  seasons,"  the  annual  festivals  ;  "  years," 
sabbatical  years.  To  Paul  all  time  was  holy  ;  and  special 
times  might  be  so  observed  as  to  be  a  denial  of  this  universal 
truth.  Such  he  assumes  to  be  the  case  with  the  Galatians  ; 
for  they  could  have  no  reason  for  adopting  foreign  rites  ex- 
cept a  belief  in  their  special  sanctity,  and  in  their  own  merit 
in  observing  them. 

Be  as  I  am  (iv.,  12)  ;  literally,  "  become  as  I  am,"  that  is, 
become  free  from  the  law,  as  I  once,  a  born  Jew,  became  like 
you  Gentiles. 

Ye  did  me  no  wrong  (iv.,  12),  at  the  time  of  his  first  visit, 
of  which  the  previous  words  have  reminded  him. 

Because  of  an  infirmity  of  the  flesh  (iv.,  13).— He  was 
detained  in  the  country  by  illness,  apparently  not  having 
intended  to  preach  there. 

A  temptation  to  you  (iv.,  14). — The  illness  evidently  had 


iv.,  15-20.  GALATIANS  231 

something  repulsive  connected  with  it,  which  might  have 
tempted  the  Galatians  to  treat  him  very  differently. 

Your  eyes  (iv,,  15). — They  were  ready  to  give  him  what 
was  most  precious.  There  is  no  implied  reference  to  Paul's 
eyes,  as  though  his  disease  was  in  them. 

Have  I  become  your  enemy  f  (iv.,  16). — This  seems  to  refer 
to  some  charge  made  by  his  opponents.  On  his  second  visit 
he  must  have  had  occasion  to  use  some  plain  speech,  and 
this  was  misinterpreted  to  his  disadvantage. 

They  desire  to  shut  you  oict  (iv.,  17)  ;  to  make  you  into  an 
exclusive  clique  attached  to  themselves  alone,  for  which 
purpose  they  court  and  flatter  you. 

//  is  good  to  be  zealously  sought,  etc.  (iv.,  18). — This  seems 
to  be  a  qualification  of  what  he  has  just  said.  He  does  not 
want  to  keep  the  Galatians  all  to  himself,  so  that  they  should 
be  zealously  sought  only  during  his  presence.  He  does  not 
object  to  the  seeking  provided  it  be  in  a  good  cause. 

My  little  children  (iv.,  19). — This  is  the  only  place  where 
Paul  applies  this  term  to  his  readers.  It  expresses  his  affec- 
tion and  their  immaturity.  He  compares  himself  to  their 
mother,  and  is  again  suffering  for  them  till  Christ  become 
the  inmost  principle  of  their  being,  when  all  their  reliance 
on  externals  would  drop  away  of  itself. 

To  change  7ny  voice  (iv.,  20j,  to  speak  more  gently  and 
persuasively. 

With  a  sudden  change  of  feeling  Paul  now  adduces  rather  ab- 
ruptly an  argument  from  the  history  of  Abraham,  leading  up  to  the 
hortatory  portion  of  the  letter  (iv.,  21-v.,  i). 

This  is  the  most  elaborate  instance  of  allegorical  inter- 
pretation in  the  Epistles.  It  was  a  method  of  explaining 
ancient  writings  which  was  common  at  the  time  ;  but  it  is 
applied  by  Paul  with  great  reserve,  and  with  none  of  the 
arbitrary  fancy  which  so  abounds  in  other  writers.  The 
present  example  we  might  almost  describe  as  an  application 
of  history  to  illustrate  a  spiritual  truth,  though  no  doubt  in 


232  GALA  TIANS  iv.,  25-29. 

calling  it  an  allegory  he  implies  that  the  story  was  intended 
to  convey  that  truth.  The  question  was  whether  the  heirs 
of  Abraham  were  only  Jews  and  those  who  had  been  incor- 
porated with  Judaism.  Paul  contended  that  the  promised 
heirs  were  those  who  possessed  his  spiritual  faith.  So  we 
are  told  that  he  had  two  sons,  the  natural  one  born  from  a 
slave,  the  spiritual  born  through  Divine  promise  from  the 
freewoman.  Here  we  see  typified  two  covenants,  of  bondage 
and  of  freedom,  and  two  lines  of  descent,  the  servile  and  the 
free.     The  free-born  child  of  promise  alone  was  the  heir. 

This  Hagar  is  Mount  Sinai  i)i  Arabia  (iv.,  25). — There  is 
no  "this"  in  the  Greek.  The  proper  translation  is  "the 
word  Hagar,"  meaning  that  this  was  a  local  name  for 
Mount  Sinai,  and  thus  justifying  the  connection  of  Hagar 
with  the  covenant  which  is  associated  with  that  mountain. 
The  reading,  however,  is  uncertain  ;  and  if  we  adopt  the 
reading  in  the  margin,  the  connection  will  be  this, — Hagar 
represents  the  covenant  from  Sinai,  for  she  is  the  mother  of 
the  Arabians,  and  Sinai  is  in  Arabia.  This  answered  to  the 
present  Jerusalem,  which  was  the  central  city  of  the  law, 
and  was  in  bondage  spiritually,  and  in  subjection  politically, 

Jerusalem  that  is  above  (iv.,  26). — The  Jews  believed  in  a 
heavenly  or  ideal  Jerusalem,  which  had  existed  with  God 
from  the  creation  of  the  world. 

■  //  is  written  (iv.,  26),  in  Isaiah  liv.,  i.  The  passage  re- 
fers to  the  revival  of  the  Israelites  after  a  period  of  subjec- 
tion. Paul  applies  it  to  the  Church,  the  promised  seed 
which  would  soon  outnumber  the  Jews. 

Persecuted  (iv.,  29). — The  reference  is  to  Gen.  xxi.,  9, 
where  it  is  told  that  Sarah  saw  Ishmael  mocking  Isaac.  A 
rabbinical  story  says  that  Ishmael  shot  arrows  at  Isaac  under 
the  pretence  of  playing  with  him  ;  and  it  is  possible  that 
Paul  may  have  had  this  in  mind.  The  present  persecution 
was  from  the  Jews.  The  war  is  thus  carried  into  the  enemy's 
camp.     The  Jews  as  a  nation,  instead  of  being  the  promised 


iv.,  3I-V.,  3.  GALA  TIANS  233 

seed,  were,  spiritually,  the  children  of  Ishmael,  and,  there- 
fore, as  the  next  verse  shows,  were  not  to  share  the  inherit- 
ance. The  Scripture  quoted,  with  a  change  of  words,  but 
not  of  sense,  is  Gen.  xxi.,  10. 

Wherefore  (iv.,  31)  ;  a  conclusion  drawn  from  the  alle- 
gor}%  but  serving  also  as  a  fitting  close  for  the  whole  argu- 
ment. 

Christ  set  us  free  (v.,  l). — This  verse  forms  a  transition  to 
the  more  hortatory  portion  of  the  Epistle.  It  sums  up  in  a 
few  words  what  Paul  has  shown  to  be  an  essential  character- 
istic of  the  Gospel,  spiritual  freedom.  To  abandon  this,  and 
place  oneself  in  subjection  to  a  mere  outward  authority, 
however  grand  and  imposing,  was  to  renounce  Christ. 

Having  begun  with  an  exhortation  to  stand  fast,  Paul  subjoins  an 
authoritative  statement  of  the  reason  why  they  should  do  so  ;  to  be 
"  in  Christ  "  and  to  be  "  under  law  "  were  incompatible  (v.,  2-6). 

I  Paul  (v.,  2)  :  an  appeal  to  his  personal  authority, — I, 
your  father  in  the  faith,  an  apostle  of  the  Gentiles ;  I,  who 
admit  that  circumcision  is  in  itself  a  matter  of  indiflference, 
and  have  even  been  charged  with  preaching  it  (see  v.  11)  ; 
I,  the  Pharisee,  who  know  all  about  the  law  and  its  failure 
to  satisfy  the  deepest  needs. 

If  ye  receive  ciraimcision  (v.,  2). — These  words  do  not,  of 
course,  apply  to  Jews,  for  Paul  himself  had  received  circum- 
cision. But  Gentiles  could  have  no  motive  in  receiving  it, 
except  a  belief  that  it  was  necessary,  or  at  least  useful,  for 
justification  ;  and  to  receive  it  for  any  such  reason  was  to 
accept  the  whole  principle  of  the  law,  and  abandon  the  spir- 
itual faith  of  Christ.  The  Jews,  on  their  side,  taught  that, 
if  a  Gentile  kept  the  whole  law,  that  would  profit  him 
nothing  without  circumcision.' 

I  testify  again  (v.,  3). — He  probably  had  occasion  to  do  so 
on  his  second  visit.     This  verse  gives  the  reason  why  Christ 

'  Weber,  y«t/.  T/icoL,  p.  67. 


234  GALA  77AJVS  v.,  4-6. 

would  profit  them  nothing.  Circumcision  involved  the  en- 
tire acceptance  of  Jewish  legalism,  and  bound  a  man  to  the 
law  as  completely  as  baptism  bound  him  to  Christianity. 

Fallen  aiv  ay  from  grace  (v.,  4) ;  because  law  judges  every- 
thing by  extraneous  conformity  to  its  precepts  ;  grace  is  able 
to  forgive,  and  accepts  the  faith  and  devotion  of  the  heart. 

Through  the  Spirit  (v.,  5). — There  is  no  article  in  the 
Greek,  and  the  stress  is  thrown  on  the  quality  of  spirit  as 
such,  in  implied  contrast  with  "  the  flesh,"  to  which  the 
law  appealed.  Whether  the  reference  is  to  the  Spirit  of 
God,  as  distinct  from  the  human  spirit,  may  be  questioned. 
Paul  may  include  the  whole  of  the  spiritual  domain,  where 
the  spirit  of  man  holds  communion  with  the  Spirit  of  God. 

By  faith  (v.,  5):  literally,  "out  of  faith,"  denoting  the 
source  from  which  the  waiting  springs,  and  co-ordinate  with 
"  through  the  Spirit." 

The  hope  of  righteousness  (v.,  5).—"  Hope  "  stands  for  the 
fulfilment  of  the  hope.  The  words  might  mean  the  hope 
generated  by  righteousness,  for  righteousness  is  elsewhere 
looked  upon  as  a  present  Christian  possession.  But  they 
more  naturally  imply  that  righteousness  is  the  object  of 
hope.  This  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  present  possession  ; 
for  the  grandest  Christian  gifts  are  both  present  and  future. 
We  have  received  "  the  adoption,"  and  yet  we  wait  for  "  the 
adoption."  We  have  received  "the  reconciliation,"  and 
3'et  we  are  exhorted  to  be  reconciled.  We  have  communion 
with  God,  and  righteousness  ;  but  perfect  communion,  abso- 
lute righteousness,  are  in  the  future. 

In  Christ  fesus  (v.,  6). — Paul  speaks  both  of  our  being  in 
Christ  and  of  Christ  being  in  us.  These  things  are  not  local, 
but  spiritual,  and  imply  a  communion  whereby  his  life 
becomes  the  principle  of  our  life.  Then  mere  outward  forms 
become  indifferent ;  and  the  principle  of  our  life  is  faith, 
using  love  as  the  instrument  of  its  activit}'.  Here,  as  else- 
where, we  have  the  triad,  faith,  hope,  and  love. 


v.,  8-II.  GALA  TIANS  235 

Paul  now  turns  to  the  Galatians  with  a  personal  appeal,  remind- 
ing them  that  they  had  followed  a  good  course,  and  warning  them 
against  the  change  that  was  taking  place  (v.,  7-12). 

This  persuasion  (v.,  8)  ;  either  the  act  of  persuasion  which 
was  exercised  upon  them,  or  the  doctrine  which  they  were 
being  persuaded  to  adopt. 

Him  that  calleth  you  (v.,  8)  ;  that  is,  God,  as  always  in 
Paul.  The  present  tense  indicates  a  permanent  attribute  of 
God  :  He  calls,  but  men  do  not  always  hear. 

A  little  leaven,  etc.  (v.,  9)  :  a  proverb  cjuoted  also  in  i 
Cor.  v.,  6.  The  reference  is  either  to  the  little  band  of 
Judaisers  or  to  their  false  principles. 

None  othcricisc  minded  {y.y  lo)  :  they  will  not  think  other- 
wise than  according  lo  the  doctrine  which  he  has  just 
taught.  But  though  the  troul)lcr  may  fail  in  his  efforts,  he 
must  bear  his  judgment.  It  is  clear  that  Paul  did  not  re- 
gard it  as  a  slight  thing  to  interfere  with  the  spirituality  of 
the  Gospel,  however  honest  might  be  the  narrow  zeal  which 
thrust  itself  in  where  other  men  had  laboured. 

If  I  still  preach  circumcision  (v.,  Il),  as  I  did  before  my 
conversion.  This  seems  to  imply  that  Paul  himself  was 
said  to  be  preaching  circumcision.  Such  a  statement  must 
appear  to  us  very  absurd  ;  but  Paul  became  as  a  Jew  to 
the  Jews,  and  if,  in  conformity  with  this  practice,  he  cir- 
cumcised Timothy  (Acts  xvi.,  3),  we  can  understand  how 
the  zealots  might  misrepresent  him,  as  though  he  reall}'  did 
believe  in  the  advantage  of  circumcision,  and  omitted  to 
impose  it  on  the  Gentiles  merely  to  gain  their  favour.  They 
could  thus  appeal  to  his  authority  against  himself.  This 
allegation,  however,  was  sufficiently  refuted  by  the  fact  that 
the  Jews  continued  to  per.secute  liini  ;  for  the  cross  was  with- 
out offence,  if  it  was  not  a  rival  to  the  law.  One  who 
merely  added  to  his  Jewish  belief  the  acceptance  of  a  cruci- 
fied man  as  the  Messiah  might  be  looked  upon  as  compara- 
tivclv  innocent ;  one  who  saw  in  the  crucifixion  the  source 


236  GALA  TIANS  v.,  12-16. 

of  a  great  religious  revolution,  and  the  downfall  of  Judaism, 
was  in  a  very  different  position,  and  was  hated  with  all  the 
hatred  that  only  a  religion  of  forms  is  able  to  generate. 

Oit  themselves  off  (or,  go  beyond  cirauncision,  v.,  12). — 
The  meaning,  cut  themselves  off  from  intercourse  with 
you,  is  not  without  defenders.  This  suits  the  tone  of  the 
passage  : — I  wish  they  would  go  of  themselves,  and  not 
render  harsher  measures  necessary  ;  for  you  have  been  called 
to  mutual  love.  But  the  other  sense  is  generally  preferred, 
though  it  introduces  a  very  bitter  piece  of  sarcasm. 

A  necessary  caution  is  now  introduced.  Freedom  from  the  law 
implied  spirituality  of  life  (v.,  13-26). 

The  Judaisers  would  naturally  charge  Paul  with  teaching 
antinomianism  ;  and  in  doing  so  they  pointed  to  a  real  dan- 
ger. It  is  so  easy  to  accept  freedom  as  an  outward  gift, 
while  knowing  nothing  of  its  spiritual  source,  and  neglect- 
ing its  obligations. 

For  ye  (v.,  13). — The  connection  is  not  very  clear,  and 
"for"  must  be  referred  to  the  general  sense  of  the  previous 
passage.  It  is  particularly  suitable  to  z'.  8.  "Ye"  is  em- 
phatic, in  contrast  with  the  disturbers. 

Tlie  flesh  (v.,  13)  :  the  lower  and  animal  portion  of  our 
nature,  which  is  innocent  in  its  primitive  instincts,  but  is 
naturally  self- regarding,  and,  when  adopted  as  a  principle 
of  life,  makes  the  character  selfish  and  impure.  It  is  there- 
fore the  source,  not  only  of  sensual  sins,  but  of  anger, 
jealousy,  ambition,  worldliness,  which  minister  to  an  un- 
spiritual  gratification. 

The  whole  law  is  fulfilled  (v.,  14). — I^ove  was  the  highest 
principle  of  the  law  ;  and  therefore  he  who  loved  had  virtu- 
ally fulfilled  all  that  lay  beneath  it,  and  had  risen  into  that 
life  of  freedom  with  which  the  law  did  not  interfere. 

Walk  by  the  Spirit  (v.,  16). — As  in  v.  5  (which  see), 
there  is  no  article.     The  contrast  with  "  the  flesh  "  certainly 


v.,  17-20.  GALA  TIANS  237 

suggests  that  the  Spirit  is  in  some  sense  ours.  On  the  other 
hand,  v.  18  may  fairly  be  compared  with  Rom.  viii.,  14, 
where  the  Spirit  is  expressly  called  the  Spirit  of  God.  But 
did  not  Paul  believe  that  the  Spirit  of  God  so  dwelt  within 
us  as  to  enter  into  our  consciousness,  and  to  become  as  it 
were  a  part  of  our  personality,  while  j-et  bearing  witness  to 
its  Divine  source  and  essence  ?  Hence,  while  recognising 
the  distinction,  we  cannot  always  mark  the  precise  limits 
between  the  Divine  and  human  spirits.  The  latter  may  in- 
deed be  defiled  (2  Cor.  vii.,  i)  ;  but  it  is  in  itself  the  organ 
of  Divine  communication,  and  its  end  is  perfect  union  with 
God.  When  we  walk  in  this  realm  of  spirit,  where  the 
Divine  and  human  meet,  we  are  raised  above  the  misleading 
desires  of  the  flesh. 

These  arc  cotitniry  the  one  to  the  other  (v.,  17). — This  points 
to  a  contrariety  in  our  own  nature,  which  arises  as  soon  as 
that  nature  is  quickened  on  its  higher  side.  This  contra- 
riety exists  as  a  condition  of  moral  life,  wdiicli  would  not 
arise  if  we  could  do  without  check  whatever  we  might  for 
the  moment  wish.  This  internal  conflict,  by  creating  a 
sense  of  moral  weakness,  prepares  us  for  the  redemption  in 
Christ,  when  the  soul  rises  through  faith  into  communion 
with  God.     See  Romans  vii.  and  viii. 

If  ye  are  led  by  the  Spirit,  etc.  (v.,  18). — "Spirit"  and 
"  law  "  have  no  articles  in  the  Greek,  so  that  the  emphasis 
lies  on  their  contrasted  qualities. 

In  evidence  of  the  contrariety,  the  works  of  the  flesh  are 
contrasted  with  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  (v.,  19-23).  The 
former  are  utterly  opposed  to  the  righteousness  of  God,  and 
exclude  from  His  kingdom.  They  belong  to  a  wholly  differ- 
ent realm,  and  no  freedom  from  the  law  can  ever  make 
them  Divine. 

Parties  (or,  heresies,  v.,  20)  are  referred  to  here  as  spring- 
ing from  factious  preferences  and  self-will.  Heretics,  there- 
fore, are   not  those  who  gravely  and  conscientiously  form 


238  GALA  TIANS  v.,  22-26. 

opinions  different  from  those  of  the  majority,  but  those  who 
cause  divisions  by  their  want  of  love. 

Fruit  of  the  Spirit  (v.,  22),  not  works  of  the  Spirit ;  for 
the  list  contains  only  dispositions.  These  dispo.sitions  have 
their  appropriate  actions,  but  do  not  move  in  obedience  to 
fixed  rules. 

Faithfuhicss  (v.,  22). — This  is  the  word  which  is  usually 
translated  "  faith,"  and  Paul  ought  not  to  be  saved  from 
apparent  contradiction  by  altering  his  expression.  If  the 
Spirit  comes  by  the  hearing  of  faith,  it  is  equally  true  that 
faith  is  a  fruit  of  the  Spirit.  Paul  is  not  under  the  law  of 
a  rigid  dogmatic  any  more  than  a  law  of  works. 

Against  such  there  is  ?io  law  (v.,  23)  ;  and  therefore  the 
law  ceases  to  be  a  restraint,  and  we  live  freely  out  of  the 
resources  of  the  Spirit  within  us. 

Crucified  the  flesh  (v.,  24). — This,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  whole  passage,  shows  that  Paul  is  dealing  with 
something  far  more  profound  than  an  imaginary  forensic 
imputation.  The  flesh  is  not  of  course  literally  crucified, 
but  self-denial  is  real,  and  those  who  are  Christ's  live  a  life 
above  and  beyond  the  cravings  of  the  animal  nature. 

Live  .  .  .  walk  (v.,  25). — The  former  word  refers  to 
the  inward  principle  of  life  ;  the  latter,  to  the  outward  con- 
duct. It  depends,  at  least  in  part,  on  our  own  will  whether 
the  latter  is  a  true  expression  of  the  former.  Hence  the 
exhortation. 

Let  us  not  be  vainglorious  (v.,  26). — It  is  one  of  the  fre- 
quent results  even  of  serious  differences  of  opinion  that  they 
stir  up  all  that  is  vain  and  petty  in  men,  and  controversy 
begets  party  spirit,  and  mutual  jealousy  and  alienation. 
Against  this  the  Galatians  are  warned.  Christian  freedom 
is  the  freedom  to  serve  others,  under  the  leading  of  love. 

The  exhortation  is  continued  by  supposing  a  case  of  real  tres- 
pass, and  showing  how  we  ought  to  deal  with  it  (vi.,  1-5). 

If  we  are  really  spiritual,  the  fault  of  another  will  make  us 


vi. ,  6-8.  GALA  TlAiVS 


239 


humble  ;  for  the  fault  is  in  a  nature  which  we  share.  We 
shall  therefore  seek  gently  to  restore  him,  instead  of  making 
the  fault  an  occasion  for  pride  and  ill-nature.  If  we  want  a 
law  and  a  burden  there  is  the  law  of  Christ,  whereby  we 
help  to  bear  the  weight  of  a  brother's  burdened  conscience. 
To  puff  oneself  up  in  comparison  with  others  is  mere  self- 
deception.  His  own  work  is  what  each  man  ought  to  test, 
instead  of  sitting  in  judgment  on  that  of  his  neighbour  ;  and 
then,  if  it  be  really  good,  his  satisfaction  will  not  be  due  to 
comparison  with  someone  else,  who  may  have  had  fewer 
opportunities.  For  each  man  must  carry  his  own  load,  and 
can  neither  shuffle  off  his  own  responsibility  on  another,  nor 
gain  credit  for  carrying  what  might  crush  his  neighbour,  but 
is  easy  for  him.  The  "load"  here  is  not  the  same  as  the 
"burden  "  of  v.  2.  We  cannot  shift  responsibility  ;  but  wc 
can,  through  spiritual  sympathy,  relieve  the  weight  witli 
which  a  sense  of  sin  presses  on  a  brother's  heart.  We  must 
note  the  importance  which  Paul  here  attaches  to  "work." 
Faith  works  through  love,  and  we  can  test  the  character  and 
power  of  the  faith  and  love  by  the  quality  of  the  work. 

An  exhortation  follows  of  a  more  general  kind.  They  must  seek 
to  be  and  to  do  good  in  ail  things  and  to  all  men  ;  and  this  is  en- 
forced by  a  very  solemn  statement  (vi.,  6-10). 

Let  him  that  is  taught  (vi.,  6).— The  word  tran.slated 
"  taught"  means  orally  instructed,  and  thus  an  interesting 
light  is  thrown  upon  the  practice  of  the  churches  at  that 
time.  This  is  generally  taken  as  a  direction  to  the  taught 
to  communicate  of  their  temporal  blessings  to  the  teachers  ; 
but  some  prefer  an  ethical  meaning, — let  the  taught  share 
with  the  teacher  in  everything  spiritually  good. 

Be  not  deceived,  etc.  (vi.,  7,  8).— This  is  a  most  emphatic 
statement  of  the  unalterable  law  of  retribution,  and  sweeps 
away  the  whole  system  of  forensic  make-believe  which  has 
been  thrust  upon  the  Apostle.  From  one  point  of  view  it 
might  be  said  to  be  the  very  principle  of  the  law  itself,  and 


240  GALATIANS  vl.,  10-12. 

undoubtedly  the  law  bore  witness  to  it.  But  the  observance 
of  the  law  had  become,  in  Paul's  apprehension,  a  piece  of 
mere  externalism.  In  turning  to  it,  the  Galatians  were 
simply  sowing  to  the  flesh,  deserting  the  spiritual  substance 
and  reality  for  the  sake  of  forms  and  shadows.  Of  course 
the  application  extends  far  beyond  this,  and  probably  the 
reference  is  more  immediately  to  the  "  works  of  the  flesh," 
which  have  been  already  condemned.  These  can  end  only 
in  corruption,  physical  and  moral,  and  no  descent  from 
Abraham,  no  outward  ceremony,  can  alter  this  imperious 
fact.  Eternal  life,  the  gift  of  God,  comes  only  from  the 
Spirit,  and  he  who  would  have  it  must  sow  to  the  Spirit. 

Opportunity  (vi.,  lO),  the  same  word  as  "season"  in  the 
last  verse.  Now  is  the  season  for  doing  good  ;  the  season 
for  reaping  will  come.  Observe  the  stress  laid  on  "  doing  " 
and  "work,"  and  the  desire  to  extend  our  beneficence  to 
"all,"  though  a  preference  may  be  given  to  those  who  are 
sharers  of  our  faith. 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  a  summing  up  which  Paul  wrote  with 
his  own  hand,  and  which  is  expressed  in  strong  and  concise  words 
(vi.,  H-18). 

With  how  laj'ge  letters  I  have  writteji  (or,  /  zvrite  vi., 
11). — The  past  tense  is  used  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
readers,  so  that  the  reference  need  not  be  to  the  whole 
Epistle,  but  only  to  this  concluding  section.  Paul  either 
dictated  his  letters  or  caused  a  fair  copy  to  be  made  (Rom. 
xvi.,  22),  and  then  authenticated  them  by  adding  a  few 
words  in  his  own  hand  (i  Cor.  xvi.,  21  ;  Col.  iv.,  18  ;  2 
Thess.  iii.,  17).  Here  the  gravity  of  the  subject  leads  him  to 
make  a  longer  addition  than  usual,  which  was  easily  distin- 
guished by  its  large  characters  from  the  neater  text  of  the 
scribe. 

Make  a  fair  show  in  the  flesh  (vi.,  12),  make  an  outward 
display  of  religion,  which  will  gaiu  a  reputation  for  sane- 


vi.,  13-15.  GALA  TIANS  241 

tity.  Compare  Christ's  own  warnings  in  Mt.  vi.,  i  sqq. 
This  sort  of  outward  rehgion  is  apt  to  end  in  insincerity, 
not  necessarily  hypocrisy  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  but  a 
want  of  reahty  and  simplicity.  Paul  adds,  however,  a  fur- 
ther motive,  the  fear  of  persecution.  We  may  infer  from 
this  that  the  party  who  insisted  on  the  observance  of  the 
law  were  much  less  obnoxious  to  the  Jews  than  Paul.  The 
ascription  of  such  motives  to  his  opponents  constitutes  a 
very  serious  charge  ;  but  Paul  may  have  known  the  men  he 
was  dealing  with,  and  had  good  grounds  for  making  it.  Of 
his  unbelieving  countrymen  he  bears  witness  elsewhere  that 
they  had  a  zeal  for  God  (Rom.  x.,  2). 

They  li'ho  receive  circiuiicisiou  (vi.,  13). — If  this  reading  be 
correct,  the  reference  must  be  to  Gentile  believers  who  were 
submitting  to  the  rite  ;  but  then  there  is  no  proper  con- 
trast with  "you"  ;  and  the  whole  statement  seems  inex- 
plicable unless  Jewish  believers  are  meant.  This  is  an 
argument  in  favour  of  the  other  reading,  "  those  who  have 
been  circumcised,"  which  is  not  without  good  authority. 
The  words,  then,  are  to  this  effect  :  Even  the  Jews  who  are 
troubling  you  do  not  consistently  carry  out  the  obligations 
of  the  law.  Circumcision  has  ceased,  for  them,  to  be  a  sign 
of  incorporation  with  Judaism,  and  all  they  want  is  to  be 
able  to  boast  among  their  unbelieving  countrymen  that,  at 
their  instigation,  3'ou  have  accepted  the  rite. 

Far  be  it  from  me  to  glory  save  in  the  cross  (vi.,  14). — Out- 
wardly and  in  the  eyes  of  men  the  cross  was  a  thing  to  be 
ashamed  of,  and  to  glory  in  it  then  brought  nothing  but 
scorn  and  persecution.  But  spiritually  it  was  the  symbol  of 
redemption,  and  through  the  spirit  of  him  who  suffered  on 
it  Paul  had  been  delivered  from  all  worldly  thoughts  and 
aims. 

Neither  is  circumcision  anything,  etc.  (vi.,  15). — These  out- 
ward distinctions  are  nothing.     There  is  just  as  little  merit 

ou  one  side  as  the  other  ;  and  the  only  serious  matter  is  the 
16 


242  GALATIANS  vi.,  i6,  17. 

"  new  creation,"  the  life  of  faith  and  love  within  the  heart, 
bringing  forth  fruits  of  well-doing. 

The  Israel  of  God  (vi.,  16),  the  true,  spiritual  Israel, 
whether  Jewish  or  Gentile. 

Henceforth  (vi.,  17). — Now  he  has  fully  expressed  himself, 
and  there  can  be  no  further  ambiguity  as  to  his  position. 
No  one  can  have  a  right  to  interfere  with  him  ;  for  he,  what- 
ever maj'-  be  the  case  with  others,  is  the  slave  of  Christ,  as  is 
proved  by  the  branded  marks,  the  stigmata,  which  he  bears 
in  his  body,  the  scars  left  by  stoning  and  scourging.  It  was 
thus  that  he  who  wore  the  crown  of  thorns,  and  whose  hands 
and  feet  were  pierced  with  nails,  stamped  the  Apostle  as  his 
own. 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  a  benediction,  suitable  to  any 
of  the  Pauline  letters,  but  especially  appropriate  to  this, 
which  contrasts  grace  with  law,  and  the  spirit  with  the  flesh. 
It  is  the  only  Epistle  which  ends  with  the  word  "breth- 
ren." He  has  had  occasion  to  speak  plainly  and  even 
severely  ;  but  he  has  not  become  their  enemy  by  telling 
them  the  truth.  They  were  still  dear  to  him  as  members 
of  the  new  brotherhood  in  Christ. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  Paul's  most  elaborate  and 
systematic  work.  To  attempt  to  discuss  with  any  ful- 
ness the  numerous  questions  which  are  raised  in  an  Intro- 
duction to  this  letter  would  carry  us  far  beyond  the  limits 
assigned  to  this  Commentary,  and  I  nuist  be  content  with 
touching  very  briefly  on  the  principal  points  which  require 
investigation,  and  leaving  my  own  opinion  without  adequate 
defence. 

From  Macedonia,  whither  he  had  gone  from  Ephesus 
after  the  riot,  Paul  proceeded  to  Greece,  and  the  Epistle  was 
written  at  Corinth  during  his  three  months'  residence  there. 
This  appears  from  the  following  facts.  He  was  about  to  set 
out  for  Jerusalem  with  the  contributions  for  the  poor  to 
which  we  have  already  referred,  and  he  intended  afterwards 
to  visit  Rome.'  It  had  been  his  purpose,  when  he  came  to 
Greece,  to  take  up  his  abode  in  Corinth  ' ;  and  Corinth  is 
clearly  indicated  in  this  Epistle  as  the  place  of  composition. 
Phoebe,  a  deaconess  of  the  church  in  Cenchreae,  is  com- 
mended to  the  readers,  and  Cenchreae  was  one  of  the  ports 
of  Corinth.'  After  this  reference  to  the  port  "the  city  "  can 
have  but  one  meaning;  and  Erastus,  "the  steward  of  the 
city,"   sends   his   greeting.'     It  is  also  a  coincidence   that 

'xv.,  25-28.  sxvi.,  I,  2. 

-Cor.  xvi.,  5-7;  2  Cor.  ix.,  4  ;  xii.,   20-xiii.,  2.  •*  xvi.,  23. 

243 


244  INTRODUCTION 

Gaius,  the  host  of  Paul  and  of  the  whole  church,  sends  his 
salutation,'  and  a  certain  Gaius  was  one  of  the  few  whom 
Paul  had  baptised  at  Corinth.'  We  may  add  that  internal 
indications  of  style  and  thought  place  this  Epistle  in  the 
same  period  as  Corinthians  and  Galatians.  This  view  is 
generally  accepted,  and  we  need  have  little  hesitation  in 
placing  the  composition  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  shortly 
before  Paul  left  Greece  for  his  final  visit  to  Jerusalem. 
Whether  this  year  was  58  or  a  few  years  earlier  depends  on 
the  chronology  of  Paul's  life  as  a  whole.  Relatively  to  the 
events  of  his  life  the  date  is  admitted. 

The  evidence  on  which  we  have  chiefly  relied  is  contained 
in  the  last  two  chapters  of  the  Epistle,  This  reminds  us 
that  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters,  and  especially  of  the 
sixteenth,  or  of  part  of  it,  has  been  called  in  question.  The 
letter,  in  the  ordinary  printed  text,  closes  with  a  long  dox- 
ology  ;  but  the  greater  number  of  our  authorities  place  this 
doxology  at  the  end  of  xiv.  A  further  difficulty  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  recurrence  of  what  seems  to  be  the  closing 
benediction  ;  and  the  salutations  present  some  features  which 
are  thought  to  be  perplexing,  and  to  point  to  Ephesus 
rather  than  Rome.  A  variety  of  hypotheses  have  been 
started  which,  without  denying  that  these  chapters  are  the 
composition  of  Paul,  suggest  that  certain  portions  were 
meant  for  another  church,  and  through  some  mistake  got 
attached  to  Romans.  Baur,  however,  and  some  of  his  fol- 
lowers deny  altogether  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters, 
and  think  they  are  the  work  of  a  Pauline  Christian  who 
wished  to  soften  down  the  anti-Judaic  spirit  of  the  Epistle  in 
the  interests  of  catholic  unity.  The  arguments  rest  on  a 
subjective  conception  of  what  Paul  is  likely  to  have  written 
in  conformity  with  the  Tiibingen  scheme.  These  various 
difficulties  and  conjectures  furnish  material  for  a  prolonged 
examination  ;  but  in  this  brief  Introduction  I  can  only  say 
'  xvi.,  23.  ^  I  Cor.  i.,  14. 


ROMANS  245 

that  my  own  judgment  is  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of 
both  chapters,  as  this-  appears  to  me  to  involve  fewer  difficul- 
ties than  the  rival  hypotheses. 

The  origin  of  the  Roman  church  is  wrapped  in  obscurity. 
The  traditional  ascription  of  its  foundation  to  Peter  and 
Paul  may  apply  to  its  final  constitution  by  apostolic  author- 
ity, but  certainly  not  to  the  assembling  of  the  first  groups  of 
Cliristian  believers.  When  the  Epistle  was  written  there 
had  been  a  church  in  Rome  for  many  years,'  and  it  cer- 
tainly seems  implied  that  no  man  of  the  first  rank  had  yet 
paid  it  a  visit.  It  had  probably  grown  up  gradually,  with- 
out any  formal  or  organised  effort.  Christians  from  the 
provinces  may  have  settled  in  Rome  for  various  reasons, 
and  gathered  little  congregations  into  their  houses  from 
among  neighbours  whom  they  were  able  to  interest  in  the 
new  faith  ;  and  others  who  were  permanently  resident  in 
Rome  may  have  come  in  contact  with  Christianity  and  been 
converted  in  journeys  abroad.  If  the  church  grew  up  in 
this  way,  and  not  through  a  definite  appeal  to  the  Syna- 
gogue, it  was  all  the  more  likely  to  present  that  predom- 
inantly Gentile  and  Pauline  appearance  which  particular 
passages  as  well  as  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Epistle  indicate. 
On  this  subject,  however,  opinion  has  been  sharply  divided. 
At  one  time  it  had  become  almost  a  critical  dogma  that  the 
church  was  mainly  composed  of  Jewish  Christians,  of  a 
mildly  anti-Pauline  type.  Opinion,  however,  has  undergone 
a  considerable  change,  and  many  who  would  be  reckoned  as 
belonging  to  the  critical  school  have  yielded  to  the  force  of 
evidence,  and  regard  the  church  as  principally  Gentile. 

The  Epistle  bears  more  resemblance  to  a  treatise  than  any 
other  of  the  Pauline  letters,  probably  because  it  was  not 
called  forth  by  any  immediate  requirement  in  the  church 
itself.  After  the  introductory  portion  it  falls  into  two  great 
divisions,  of  which  the  first "  is  mainly  doctrinal,  and  the 
'  XV.,  23  ;  cf.  i.,  8,  aud  xiii.,  11.  "^  i.,  i6-xi.,  36. 


246  INTRO  D  UC  TION 

second'  is  mainly  ethical  and  hortatory.  The  rest  of  the 
Epistle  relates  to  personal  affairs,  and  lies  outside  of  the 
principal  theme.  The  first  division  again  falls  into  two 
strongly  marked  subdivisions  :  in  i.-viii.  it  is  shown  that 
the  Gospel  is  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  Jew  and 
Gentile  alike,  irrespective  of  the  observance  of  the  Ivaw  ; 
in  ix.-xi.  it  is  proved  that,  in  spite  of  the  unbelief  of 
most  of  the  Jews,  the  ancient  word  of  God  had  not  failed. 
A  full  analysis  of  the  argument  must  be  reserved.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  in  the  cour.se  of  it  the  Apostle  goes  down  into 
the  most  hidden  depths  of  spiritual  conflict,  and  soars  to  the 
sublimest  heights  of  Christian  redemption.  The  theme  bears 
a  close  resemblance  to  that  which  is  discussed  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians,  as  though  the  subject  had  been  running  and 
elaborating  itself  in  the  writer's  mind  ;  but  the  treatment  is 
larger  and  more  abstract,  and  much  may  be  learnt  by  a  study 
of  the  parallels  and  contrasts  between  the  two  Epistles, 

Opinion  has  been  greatly  divided  as  to  the  occasion  and 
the  object  of  the  Epistle,  the  principal  dividing  line  being 
between  tho.se  who  regard  it  as  a  .systematic  exposition  of 
Christian  truth,  or  at  least  of  Pauline  Christianity,  and 
those  who,  with  Baur,  would  trace  it  entirely  to  historical 
conditions  and  the  great  controversy  of  the  time.  We  can- 
not pause  to  examine  these  various  opinions.  I  think  there 
is  some  truth  on  both  sides.  It  was  a  sufficient  rea.son  for 
writing  to  the  Romans  that  Paul  was  expecting  to  visit 
them,  but  was  obliged  once  more  to  postpone  an  event  to 
which  he  had  long  looked  forward.  There  was  nothing  in 
the  circumstances  of  the  church  that  required  his  interven- 
tion, and,  as  he  was  therefore  free  to  choose  his  subject,  he 
wrote  out  of  the  fulness  of  his  heart  that  grand  defence  of 
the  Gospel  which,  though  shaped  by  the  conditions  of  the 
time,  is  animated  by  the  timeless  Spirit,  and  has  proved  to 
be  a  pos.session  for  ever. 

'  xii.-xv.,  13. 


ROMANS. 


ANALYSIS. 
The  greeting,  i.,  1-7.  Introductory  remarks,  i.,  S-15. 

I. 

Doctrinai,  portion,  extending  from  i.,  16,  to  xi.,  36. 

The  subject  stated,  i.,  16,  17. 

A,    Generai,  exposition  oe  the  subject,  and  defence  of  the 
VIEWS  ADVANCED,  i.,  i8-viii.,  39. 
(i).  Uuiversal  siiifuluess,  shovviug  universal  need  of  salvation,  i., 
i8-iii.,  20. 

1.  The  case  of  the  Gentiles,  i.,  18-32. 

a.  Statement  of  the  subject  of  this  section,  i.,  18. 

b.  Source  and  character  of  heathen  iniquity,  i.,  19-23. 

c.  The  moral  corruption  resulting  from  this,  i.,  24-32. 

2.  The  case  of  the  Jews,  ii.,  i-iii.,  20. 

a.  General  principles,  ii.,  1-16. 

b.  Jewish  claims,  and  disobedience,  and  consequent  futility 

of  circumcision,  ii.,  17-29. 

c.  Objections  refuted,  iii.,  1-8. 

d.  Scriptural  proof  that  the  Jews  as  well  as  the  Gentiles 

are  under  sin,  iii.,  9-20. 
(ii).  Announcement  of  the  Christian  principle  of  salvation,  iii., 

21-31. 
(iii).  Proofs  of  the  Christian  principle,  iv,-v. 

1.  Argument  from  the  Old  Testament,  iv. 

2.  Argument  from  spiritual  experience,  v.,  l-ii. 

3.  Argument  from  the  antithesis  of  Adam  and  Christ,  v., 

12-21. 

247 


248  ROMANS 

(iv).   Moral  and  spiritual  results  of  the  Christian  position,  vi.-viii. 

1.  Argument  against  dangerous  inferences,  vi.,  i-vii.,  25. 
(i).  False  inference  that  we  may  continue  in  sin,  vi.,  i-vii.,  6. 

a.  We  must  not  continue  in   sin,  for  we  have  entered  a 

new  life,  vi.,  1-14. 

b.  We  must  not  sin,  for  we  cannot  serve  sin  and  righteous- 

ness at  the  same  time,  vi.,  15-23. 

c.  We  must  not  sin,  for  we  have  died  to  the  law,  and  be- 

come the  property  of  another,  vii.,  1-6. 
(2).  False  inference  that  the  law  is  identical  with  sin.     In  an- 
swer, its  true  nature  and  purpose  shown,  vii.,  7-25. 

2.  Positive  spiritual  results,  viii. 

B.    Difficulties  arising  out  of  the  actual  course  of  events, 
ix.-xi. 
Introduction  :  Paul's  expression  of  his  feelings  in  regard  to 

the  Jews,  ix.,  1-5. 
Statement  of  the  proposition  to  be  proved  :  the  word  of  God  has 

not  failed,  ix.,  6a. 
(i).  Nature  of  the  original  word  to  Israel,  and  its  application  to 
the  existing  state  of  things,  ix.,  6b-29. 

1.  Original  character  of  the  Divine  election,  ix.,  6b-i3. 

2.  This  does  not  imply  injustice  in  God,  ix.,  14-29. 

a.  Generally,  ix.,  14-21. 

b.  In  its  special  application  to  the  Christian  Church,  ix., 

22-29. 

(ii).  General   conclusion,    and  spiritual   law  on  which   the   facts 
rested,  ix.,  30-x,,  13. 

(iii).  The  application  of  this  spiritual  law  not  prevented  by  ignor- 
ance of  the  Gospel,  x.,  14-21. 

(iv).  God  had  not  cast  oflF  His  people,  for  a  remnant  received  the 
Gospel,  xi.,  i-io. 

(v).  The  rejection  of  the  Gospel  was  only  temporary,  being  part 
of  the  Divine  plan  of  salvation,  xi.,  11-32. 
Concluding  expression  of  praise,  xi.,  33-36. 

II. 

Ethical  portion,  extending  from  xii.,  i  To  xv.,  13. 

General  principle  of  christian  conduct,  xii.,  i,  2. 

A,    Universal  rules  of  duty,  xii.,  3-xiii.,  14. 


ROMANS  249 

(i).  Personal  intercourse  of  Christians  with   one  another,  xii., 

3-1 7a. 
(ii).  Conduct  of  Christians  towards  the  outer  world,  xii.,  I7b-xiii., 
10. 

1.  Towards  its  injustice,  xii.,  I7b-2i. 

2.  Submission  to  magistrates,  xiii.,  1-7. 

3.  General  social  intercourse,  xiii.,  8-10. 
(iii).  Personal  purity,  xiii.,  11-14. 

jmutual  duties  of  different  parties  in  the  church. 
There  must  be  mutual  respect  for  private  convic- 
tions, xiv.,  i-xv.,  13. 

(i).  Because  we  are  all  responsible  to  God,  xiv.,  1-12. 

(ii).  Because  intolerance  is  a  violation  of  Christian  love,  xiv.,  13- 
XV.,  13. 

1.  By  driving  a  brother  away  through  offence  given  to  his 

scruples,  xiv.,  13-18. 

2.  By  inducing  him  to  act  against  his  scruples,  xiv.,  19-23. 

3.  By  not  using  one's  strength  for  the  benefit  of  the  weak  in 

accordance  with  Christ's  example,  xv.,  i-i3- 
ConcIvUSIon  :    Passage    relating    to    personal    affairs,    xv., 
14-33  ;  commendation  and  salutations,  xvi.,  1-16  ;  warn- 
ing against  false  teachers,  xvi.,  17-20  ;  more  salutations, 
and  doxology,  xvi.,  21-27. 


ROMANS. 


COMMENTARY. 

Address  to  the  readers,  modified  and  expanded  from  the  usual 
Greek  mode  of  beginning  a  letter  ("  So-and-so  to  So-and-so  greet- 
ing"), and  full  of  allusions  to  the  theme  of  the  Epistle  (i.,  1-7). 

A  servant  [better,  a  slavc\  of  Jesus  Christ  (i.,  l). — Paul 
does  not  generally  so  describe  himself;  but  in  writing  to  a 
church  which  he  had  nev^er  visited  he  naturally  begins  by 
placing  himself  upon  the  common  Christian  ground,  and  in 
doing  so  selects  a  word  which  at  the  same  time  suggests  the 
dependence  of  his  activity  on  a  higher  conunand.  The  ex- 
pression reminds  us  of  the  relation  between  a  rabbi  and  his 
pupils.' 

Called  to  be  an  Apostle  (i,,  l), — ah  Apostle  who  is  such  by 
virtue  of  a  Divine  call.  Compare  Gal.  i.,  15,  and  contrast 
with  it  the  controversial  statement  in  Gal.  i.,  i.  Here  there 
is  no  controversial  object,  but  he  refers  to  his  call  partly  to 
justif}'  himself  in  addressing  a  strange  church,  and  still 
more  because  the  whole  subject  qi  a  Divine  call  to  mankind 
was  uppermost  in  his  llioughts.  His  readers  too  had  ex- 
perienced a  Divine  call  {vv.  6,  7).  This  word  answered  to 
a  vivid  experience  in  Paul's  life,  a  change  which  affected  the 
inmost  springs  of  his  being,  and  coloured  all  his  subsequent 
thought.  The  conscientiousness  and  zeal  of  his  earlj'  years 
now  appeared  to  him  ignorant  and  misdirected,  aud  he  felt 

'Weber, y«i/.  Theol.,  p.  132. 
251 


252  ROMANS  i.,  1-3. 

that  there  must  be  something  imperfect  and  weak  in  the 
principle  which  had  guided  them.  This  principle  he  described 
as  Law  ;  the  new  principle  which  swa5^ed  him  after  his  con- 
version, he  called  Faith.  The  meaning  of  these  terms  will 
be  unfolded  as  the  Kpistle  proceeds. 

Separated  unto  the  Gospel  (i.,  l), — set  apart,  according  to 
Gal.  i.,  15,  even  from  his  birth  (compare  Jer.  i.,  5).  The 
whole  of  his  life,  not  least  his  experience  of  the  awful  re- 
quirements and  condemnation  of  the  law,  prepared  him  for 
his  office  of  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

The  Gospel  of  God  (i.,  l). — "  God  "  is  the  genitive  of  the 
subject,  the  author  of  the  message.  The  word  "Gospel" 
is  without  the  article  in  Greek,  and  this  omission  throws 
the  stress  upon  the  quality,  so  that  we  might  translate  thus  : 
"  set  apart  to  preach  glad  tidings  from  God." 

The  holy  scriptures  (i.,  2). — In  the  Greek  there  is  no  ar- 
ticle. The  Old  Testament  is  alluded  to ;  but  the  emphasis 
is  laid  on  its  distinctive  character.  The  statement  brings 
out  two  facts  :  the  promi.se  was  preserved  in  writings  ;  these 
writings  were  holy.  Paul  thus  connects  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  In  spite  of  the  antithesis  of  principle  between 
Law  and  Faith,  they  were  both  parts  of  one  providential 
plan,  and  what  was  explicit  in  the  New  Testament  was  im- 
plicit in  the  Old.  The  Old  Testament  is  frequently  appealed 
to  by  Paul  in  writing  to  Gentile  churches  ;  it  was  in  fact 
the  Bible  of  Christendom  before  the  New  Testament  was 
written. 

Concerning  His  Son  (i.,  3). — There  is,  I  think,  very  insuffi- 
cient evidence  that  "  Son  of  God  "  was  an  accepted  designa- 
tion of  the  Messiah  among  the  Jews.  At  all  events  Paul 
does  not  use  such  terms  as  mere  equivalents  for  something 
else.  The  doctrine  of  sonship  enters  deeply  into  this  Epistle, 
and  we  must  suppose  that  that  doctrine  was  in  his  mind 
when  he  selected  this  particular  term  as  a  designation  of 
Christ. 


i.,  3, 4.  ROMANS  253 

Who  was  born  of  the  seed  of  David  according  to  the  flesh 
(i«>  3)- — Some  commentators  here  make  "  flesh  "  equivalent 
to  "the  human  nature,"  in  contrast  with  "the  Divine 
nature"  of  Christ, — language  which  is  quite  foreign  to  the 
writings  of  Paul.  I  must  here  express  my  opinion  once  for 
all,  that,  whatever  inference  the  dogmatic  theologian  may 
legitimatel}'  draw,  it  is  highly  improper  for  the  interpreter 
to  introduce  theological  terms,  such  as  "  trinit}'-,"  which  are 
not  found  in  Christian  literature  till  long  after  the  time  of 
Paul.  The  Apostle's  antithesis  is  that  between  flesh  and 
spirit.  Compare  his  allusion  to  his  brethren,  "  my  kinsmen 
according  to  the  flesh"  (Rom.  ix.,  3),  and  the  statement, 
"  it  is  not  the  children  of  the  flesh  that  are  children  of  God  " 
(Rom.  ix.,  8),  Sonship  to  God  is  not  determined  by  mere 
physical  relationship.  So  far  as  race  or  physical  lineage 
was  concerned,  Christ  was  sprung  from  the  seed  of  David  ; 
but  in  the  inner  spirit  of  his  life,  in  all  that  constituted  the 
reason  or  spirit,  he  was  not  the  son  of  David,  but  owned  a 
higher  parentage.  We  are  therefore  dealing  not  with  meta- 
physical, but  with  spiritual  conceptions.  Paul  accepted  the 
Messiah  of  prophecy,  belonging  to  the  xoyoS.  line  of  David  ; 
but  his  Christ  was  no  longer  an  ideal  David.  Rather  was 
he  the  lofty  type  of  spiritual  humanity,  drawing  his  essen- 
tial life  from  God,  and  thereby  entering  those  universal 
relations  in  which  questions  of  race  and  kindred  disappear. 

Declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  (i.,  4). — The  Greek  word 
rendered  "  declared  "  properly  means  "  to  appoint  "  or  "  in- 
stitute," and  is  correctly  translated  "ordained"  in  the  only 
other  passage's  in  the  New  Testament  where  it  is  applied  to 
Christ  (Acts  x.,  42  ;  xvii.,  31).  This  undoubtedly  creates  a 
difficulty,  for  Paul  does  not  seem  elsewhere  to  treat  the 
sonship  of  Jesus  as  beginning  after  the  resurrection ;  and 
accordingly  the  meaning  "declared"  has  been  invented' 
for  the  word.     I  venture  to  make  the  following  suggestions. 

'  Not  in  moderu  times,  for  it  is  given  by  Greek  commentators, 


254  ROMANS  i.,  4. 

We  have  an  analogy  in  Paul's  view  of  the  spiritual  man. 
Men  are  sons  of  God,  though  in  their  minority  they  differ 
not  from  slaves  ;  but  it  is  only  after  their  minority  that  they 
receive  the  spirit  of  God's  Son,  and  this  crisis  is  described  as 
"adoption,"  because  it  is  only  then  that  they  are  ordained 
to  the  full  privileges  which  inherently  belong  to  them  (Gal. 
iv.,  1-7).  Now  let  us  look  at  Rom.  vi.,  9,  10,  and  we  shall 
see  that  Paul  regarded  Christ's  death  and  resurrection  as  an 
important  turning-point  in  the  conditions  of  his  spiritual 
being.  This  may  be  analogous  to  the  adoption.  The  con- 
sciousness of  sonship  may  have  been  the  pervasive  power  of 
Christ's  earthly  life  ;  but  he  took  upon  him  here  the  "  form 
of  a  slave"  (Philip,  ii.,  7),  and  only  by  passing  to  the  life 
beyond  the  grave  did  he  receive  the  full  freedom  and  power 
of  his  sonship.  It  is  instructive  to  compare  the  speech  of 
Paul  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  where  the  resurrection  is  con- 
nected with  the  idea  of  holiness,  and  is  represented  as  con- 
stituting Christ's  birth  into  his  Divine  relationship  (Acts 
xiii.,  32-35).  See  also  Lk.  xx.,  36,  they  "are  sons  of  God, 
being  sons  of  the  resurrection." 

With  [better  iii\  poxvcr  (i.,  4). —  This  is  perhaps  best 
taken  as  a  supplementary  statement, — ordained  the  Son  of 
God,  and  ordained  so  in  full  possession  of  that  power  which 
is  characteristic  of  his  Gospel. 

According  to  the  spirit  of  holiness  (i.,  4). — "  Spirit  "  is  here 
contrasted  with  "flesh,"  and  the  words  clearly  indicate  the 
ground  of  sonship.  On  the  physical  side  Jesus  was  the  son 
of  David  ;  by  reason  of  his  holy  and  exalted  mind  he  was 
raised  above  the  rank  of  a  national  hero,  and  could  be 
adequately  described  only  by  the  highest  term  that  is  applic- 
able to  man.  Sonship  as  here  defined  is  ethical,  not  meta- 
physical. Compare  Romans  viii.,  14,  "As  many  as  are 
led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  these  are  sons  of  God."  Christ's 
holiness,  instead  of  separating  him  from  hiunanity,  was  the 
norm  for  all  his  disciples,  who  are  accordingly  habitually  spO' 


i.,4,5-  ROMANS  255 

ken  of  as  ' '  the  liol}^  ones  ' '  (commonly  translated  "  saints  "). 
The  Romans  are  exhorted  to  present  their  bodies  "a  holy 
sacrifice  to  God"  (xii.,  i),  and  the  Corinthians  to  "  perfect 
holiness  [the  word  here  used]  in  the  fear  of  God  "  (2  Cor.  vii., 
i).  Paul  did  not  look  upon  the  sinful,  earthly  man  as  the 
type  of  humanity  ;  that  he  found  in  the  spiritual,  heavetdy 
man,  and  he  believed  that  as  is  the  heavenly  man  such  also 
are  the  heavenly  men  (i  Cor.  xv.,  48).  But  Christ  was  the 
first  man  of  the  new  creation,  "the  first-born  among  many 
brethren  "  (Rom.  viii.,  29). 

By  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  (i.,  4). — This  cannot  be 
legitimately  interpreted  as  referring  only  to  Christ's  resurrec- 
tion. That,  in  Paul's  view,  was  not  a  miraculous  exception 
to  the  fate  of  mankind,  but  an  anticipation  and  example  of 
the  universal  destiny.  The  idea  of  sonship  was  bound  up 
with  the  idea  of  eternal  life  ;  and  it  was  through  the  general 
fact  of  raised  humanity,  already  begun,  but  not  completed, 
that  the  son  of  David  was  ordained  the  Son  of  God. 

Through  whom  (i.,  5). — Here,  as  elsewhere,  Christ  is  ex- 
pressly represented  as  the  medium,  not  the  ultimate  source, 
of  Divine  gifts  ;  and  among  these  "  grace  "  is  included. 

Unto  obedience  of  faith  (i.,  5). — This  phrase  is  of  rather 
uncertain  meaning.  It  points  out  the  object  with  which  his 
apostleship  was  conferred  upon  Paul  ;  and  as  it  was  Paul's 
peculiar  task  to  preach  "  faith,"  and  this  preaching  involved 
the  inclusion  of  the  Gentiles,  and  as  moreover  this  Epi.stle 
largely  deals  with  faith  in  opposition  to  law,  I  think  we  must 
attach  to  it  here  the  high  and  spiritual  sense  in  which  it  is  gen- 
erally used  by  the  Apostle.  The  words  may  then  mean  "  the 
obedience  Vvhicli  consists  of  faith,"  or  (less  probably)  "  obedi- 
ence to  the  principle  of  faith."  Some  would  make  "  faith  " 
mean  the  Christian  religion  ;  but  this  is  contrary  to  usage. 

Among  all  the  nations  (i.,  5). — "Gentiles"  would  be  a 
better  translation  ;  for  the  word  is  technically  used  by  Paul 
in  a  sense  that  excludes  the  Jews. 


2S6  ROMANS  i.,  6,  7. 

Among  whom  are  ye  also  (i.,  6).— This  verse  places  the 
Roman  Christians  among  the  Gentiles,  and  suggests  the 
reason  why  Paul,  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  thought  him- 
self justified  in  writing  them  an  Epistle,  though  the  church 
was  not  of  his  own  foundation. 

Called  to  be  Jesus  Chris  fs  (i.,  6).— Better,  I  think,  "Jesus 
Christ's  called  ones,"  persons  called  by  God,  and  belonging 
to  Christ.  The  clause  is  added  to  give  greater  completeness 
to  the  description  ;  they  were  not  only  Gentiles,  but  were 
called  from  the  great  Gentile  world  into  a  higher  fellowship. 

To  all  that  are  m  Rome  (i.,  7).—"  All  "  is  repeated  in  the 
next  verse.  Paul  may  have  wished  to  make  it  clear  that  he 
had  no  partial  preference,  but  extended  his  good-will  to  the 
entire  church,  known  and  unknown. 

Beloved  of  God  (i.,  7),  an  expression  found  only  here,  de- 
notes those  who  know  that  they  are  loved  by  God,  and  return 
His  love.  The  Divine  love  is  one  of  the  themes  of  the 
Epistle,  and  is  naturally  touched  on  here. 

Called  to  be  samts  (i.,  7)  ;  j;ather,  those  who  are  saints  by 
virtue  of  a  Divine  call.  The  "  calling  "  applies  to  the  read- 
ers as  well  as  Paul.  It  implies  that  the  higher  spiritual  life 
.originates  with  God,  and  not  with  man  ;  that  it  is  the  pro- 
duct, not  of  human  will,  but  of  Divine  grace  ;  and  is  there- 
fore a  response  to  a  heavenly  invitation.  It  had  an  inner 
and  an  outer  side.  Outwardly  it  was  the  invitation  spoken 
by  man  to  man,  the  voice  of  the  Christian  preacher,  which 
might  fall  on  heedless  ears.  Inwardly  it  was  the  awakening 
of  an  unknown  faith  in  the  reality,  the  nearness,  and  the 
love  of  God,  which  could  be  ascribed  only  to  the  direct 
action  of  His  Spirit  upon  the  soul.  Paul  always  includes 
the  latter. 

The  word  translated  "  saints,"  properly  "  holy  ones,"  has 
been  interpreted  by  very  able  writers  so  as  to  deprive  it  of  all 
moral  significance.  I  believe  that  this  is  quite  erroneous, 
and  that  the  word  means  simply  what  at  first  sight  it  seems 


i.,  7.  ROMANS  257 

to  mean.  But  as  the  question  j^oes  into  the  very  heart  of 
Pauline  theology,  it  is  necessary  to  subjoin  a  somewhat 
technical  discussion. 

In  considering  tbe  meaning  of  "saints"  '  we  encounter  a  diverg- 
ence of  view  which  affects  our  whole  interpretation  of  the  Epistle. 
Fritzsche  puts  one  view  in  its  extremest  lorm.  P'ollowing,  as  he 
thinks,  the  analogy  of  the  Hebrew,'^  he  contends  that  the  term  means 
simply  men  consecrated  to  God,  or  united  with  Him  by  an  unusually 
close  bond,  and  that  Christians  are  so  called  in  the  New  Testament 
neither  as  men  who  have  obtained  pardon  for  their  sins  through  the 
benefit  of  Christ,  nor  because  they  are  really  holy  and  innocent  in 
their  morals,  nor  because  they  ought  to  become  so.  As  Meyer  ex- 
presses it,  the  word  nmst  be  understood  in  a  Christian  theocratic 
sense,  and  not  of  individual  moral  holiness,  as  appears  from  the  fact 
that  all  Christians  as  Christians  are  "holy."  According  to  this  view 
the  theocratic  or  objective  relation  becomes  all-important,  and  the  sub- 
jective realisation  of  any  nobler  life  is  quite  a  secondary  thing  ;  the 
drama  of  salvation  passes  from  the  hearts  of  men,  and  is  acted  out 
amid  the  distant  scenery  of  heaven.  The  question  thus  raised  is  of 
the  highest  moment,  for  it  affects  our  entire  conception  of  Pauline 
theology  ;  and  we  must  therefore  pause  to  test  the  accuracy  of 
Fritzsche's  assertion.  We  may  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  Meyer's 
argument  is  far  from  having  the  conclusive  force  which  he  ascribes  to 
it.  It  rests,  I  think,  on  a  forgetfulness  of  the  very  diff'erent  condi- 
tions surrounding  the  Church  in  earl}'  times  and  in  our  own  day. 
Now  the  Church  has  become  the  world,  and  it  would  no  doubt  be 
quite  absurd  to  say  that  all  nominal  Christians  were  holy  ;  and  we 
have  accordingly  dropped  the  ancient  name  of  saints.  But  in  the 
primitive  age  it  was  not  so.  Men  had  to  be  in  earnest  in  order  to 
make  a  profession  of  Christianity  ;  and  though  there  were  great  evils 
and  great  misunderstandings  even  then,  yet  it  seems  clear  that  per- 
sonal purity  and  elevation  of  character  was  one  of  the  real  notes  of  the 
Church  in  opposition  to  the  surrounding  heathenism.  It  might 
consequently  be  assumed  in  a  large  way  that  all  Christians  as  such 
were  holy  ;  and  though  men  of  depraved  life  found  their  way  into  the 
Church,  they  were  not  regarded  by  Paul  as  genuine  members  of  it,  for 
he  himself  says,  "  If  a  man  has  not  the  spirit  of  Christ,  he  is  none  of 


258  ROMANS  i.,  7- 

his  "  (Rom.  viii.,  9).  If  it  be  said  that  numbers  even  of  sincere  disci- 
ples must  have  fallen  far  short  of  holiness,  we  may  reply  that  this  fact 
would  not  render  the  word  inapplicable  to  the  general  body  of  Christ- 
ians so  long  as  holiness,  however  imperfectly  realised,  was  an  essential 
ingredient  in  their  character,  and  marked  them  off  from  the  profligacy 
around  them.  It  is  possible,  then,  that  Paul  may  have  used  the 
word  in  a  strictly  ethical  sense,  and  we  must  determine  by  a  com- 
parison of  instances  whether  he  actually  did  so. 

Let  us  look  first  at  the  application  of  the  Hebrew  word  to  the 
Israelites.  In  Lev.  xi.,  44,  45,  we  read,  "Ye  shall  sanctify  your- 
selves, and  ye  shall  be  holy,  for  I  am  holy."  This  sums  up  a  number 
of  prohibitions  against  the  use  of  unclean  food.  A  similar  command- 
ment occurs  in  xix.,  2,  as  the  introduction  to  a  series  of  precepts, 
ceremonial  and  moral,  but  chiefly  the  latter  ;  and  after  many  more 
precepts  of  a  similar  kind  the  comrnandment  is  once  more  repeated 
in  XX.,  26.  These  passages,  which  furnish  the  key  to  the  sense  in 
which  the  Israelites  are  called  "a  people  of  saints  "  '  (Daniel  viii.,  24), 
prove  beyond  question  that  the  Hebrew  term  contains  an  ethical 
meaning.  The  people  are  to  be  holy  because  God  to  whom  they 
belong  is  holy,  a  statement  which  surely  implies  that  they  were  to 
imitate  the  sanctity  of  God.  The  context  confirms  this  interpreta- 
tion ;  for  the  sanctity  was  to  be  e'xhibited  in  a  life  of  purity  and  recti- 
tude. The  fact  that  the  purity  was  to  some  extent  ceremonial  does 
not  affect  our  present  question  ;  for  even  a  ceremonial  sanctity  in- 
volves personal  qualities  in  miCn,  and  not  merely  a  judicial  relation 
between  man  and  God.  That  this  natural  meaning  of  the  command- 
ment had  not  been  lost  iu  New  Testament  times  may  be  inferred 
from  the  appeal  which  is  made  to  it  in  i  Peter  i.,  13-16,  where,  as  in 
the  Old  Testament,  it  is  introduced  to  enforce  the  claims  of  personal 
holiness.  The  parallel  term  in  Hel)rew,  therefore,  affords  no  excuse 
for  emptying  the  Greek  word  of  its  genuine  significance. 

When  we  come  to  the  New  Testament,  although  the  word  trans- 
lated "saints"  or  "holy"  is  used  an  immense  number  of  times 
(79  iu  the  Pauline  Epistles  alone),  there  is  yet  some  difficulty  in  fix- 
ing its  meaning,  because,  when  it  is  applied  to  men,  it  is  always 
possible  to  say  that  it  refers  to  their  dedication,  and  not  to  any  quality 
in  their  character.  Nevertheless  I  think  the  ethical  meaning  would 
be  naturally  regarded  as  fundamental  if  we  had  no  theological  pur- 
pose to  serve.     Its  constant  use  in  the  phrase  "the  Holy  Spirit" 

'  Translated  "  the  holy  pecple  "  in  our  Versions. 


i  ,  7.  ROMANS  259 

seems  to  determine  its  deepest  sense  in  Christian  teaching.  What- 
ever our  doctrine  of  the  vSpirit  may  be,  no  one,  I  presume,  will  main- 
tain that  tliis  phrase  means  "the  dedicated  spirit."  The  epithet 
surely  denotes  the  attribute  of  holiness  ;  and  it  would  be  absurd  to 
describe  a  man  as  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit  if  his  mind  were  a  chaos  of 
brutal  and  sensual  passions,  even  though  he  were  a  High-priest  or  a 
Pope.  Such  a  description  applies  only  to  a  pure,  exalted  soul,  re- 
fined from  the  common  dross  of  earth  and  self.  Does,  then,  the  word 
change  its  meaning  when  it  is  predicated  of  a  man  ?  John  the  Baptist 
is  spoken  of  as  a  "just  and  holy  man  "  (Mk.  vi.,  20),  where  the  union 
of  "  holy  "  with  "just"  induces  us  to  look  for  a  moral  quality.  So 
Christ  himself  is  "  the  Holy  One  of  God  "  (Mk.  i.,  24  ;  Lk.  iv.,  34)  ; 
and  as  this  is  the  terrified  confession  of  a  man  with  an  unclean  spirit, 
we  immediately  think  of  the  serene,  unclouded  purity  with  which  the 
uncleanness  was  confronted.  Again,  he  is  called  "  the  Holy  and  Just 
One  "  (Acts  iii.,  14)  and  God's  "  holy  Servant  "  (Acts  iv.,  27,  30).  No 
one  will  wish  to  lower  the  meaning  of  the  word  when  applied  to 
Christ,  and  we  have  just  seen  an  elaborate  metaphysical  dogma  raised 
upon  an  ascription  to  him  of  a  spirit  of  holiness.  If  this  can  de- 
note, after  all,  only  a  spirit  of  dedication,  then,  so  far  as  the  passage 
in  question  is  concerned,  Christ's  souship  ceases  to  be  grounded  in 
his  essential  being,  and  expresses  only  an  official  relation  ;  and  thus 
the  warm  life  of  Christianity  is  frozen  at  its  source,  and  instead  of  the 
bread  of  spiritual  reality  our  hungry  hearts  receive  the  stone  of  theo- 
logical fiction.  Let  our  commentators  at  least  be  consistent,  and  not 
strain  the  sense  of  the  word  to  its  most  abstract  perfection  when  ap- 
plied to  Christ,  and  then,  when  this  strained  sense  is  found  inapplica- 
ble to  men,  insist  on  abolishing  it  altogether,  and  introducing  a  new 
one  adapted  to  their  theories. 

Let  us  see,  however,  how  Paul  applies  the  term  to  others  than 
Christ.  In  i  Cor.  vi.,  i,  he  contrasts  "the  saints"  with  "the  un- 
righteous," that  is,  the  Christians  with  the  outlying  unbelieving 
world.  There  is  no  true  antithesis  unless  "saints"  contains  an  idea 
of  moral  excellence  ;  and  that  a  moral  contrast  is  very  prominent  in 
Paul's  mind  is  evident  from  what  follows;  for  he  resolves  the  "un- 
righteous" into  fornicators,  idolaters,  adulterers,  thieves,  drunkards, 
and  so  forth,  whereas  the  Christians,  though  they  were  such  before 
their  conversion,  have  washed  and  been  sanctified  and  justified  in 
the  name  of  Christ  and  in  the  Spirit  of  God.  This  surely  ought  to 
satisfy  us  that  Paul  regarded  the  disciples  as  holy  in  a  far  higher  than 
a  merely  judicial  and  imputative  sense.     We  may  refer  also  to  Eph. 


25o  ROMANS  i.,  7. 

i.,  4,  where  we  have  "holy  and  without  blemish."  (Also  in  Col.  i., 
22.)  See,  further,  v.,  27,  where  the  same  epithets  are  applied  to  the 
Church  when  without  spot  or  any  such  thing.  The  force  of  the  word 
in  its  application  to  persons  may,  then,  I  think,  be  regarded  as 
sufficiently  established. 

Nevertheless  it  is  evident  that  in  its  application  to  things  it  must 
undergo  some  modification,  but  even  in  regard  to  things  it  does  not 
mean  simply  "dedicated,"  apart  from  any  quality  attaching  to  them, 
but  represents  a  sanctity  and  purity  corresponding  as  closely  to  the 
personal  attribute  as  is  possible  in  that  which  is  not  personal.  Thus 
the  Scriptures  are  called  holy,  as  being  intrinsically  good,  and  an 
expression  of  God's  holy  will.  This  is  apparent  from  Paul's  reply 
to  the  question,  "Is  the  law  sin?"  No;  "the  law  is  holy,  and 
the  commandment  holy  and  just  and  good  "  (Rom.  vii.,  12).  The 
injunction  to  present  our  bodies  a  holy  sacrifice  (Rom.  xii.,  i)  is  a 
demand  for  personal  purity,  the  body  sharing  as  it  were  the  sanctity 
of  the  spirit.  The  "  holy  kiss"  with  which  the  brethren  were  to 
greet  one  another  (Rom.  xvi.,  16  ;  i  Cor.  xvi.,  20  ;  2  Cor.  xiii.,  12  ;  i 
Thess.  v.,  26)  must  represent  the  temper  with  which  the  kiss  was  to  be 
given.  So,  in  the  Old  Testament,  if  the  Sabbath,  the  temple,  the 
priesthood  are  holy,  I  do  not  think  that  the  meaning  is  satisfied  if  we 
merely  say  that  they  were  dedicited  to  God  ;  it  is  rather  that  God 
has  chosen  them  to  represent,  as  it  were.  His  own  holiness,  so  that 
they  ought  to  awaken  in  men's  minds  the  reverential  awe  which  is 
due  to  Him.  Things  do  not  become  holy  in  our  belief  until,  through 
an  association  of  ideas,  we  transfer  to  them  some  of  the  feeling  which 
is  strictly  applicable  only  to  character,  just  as  we  entertain  feelings 
of  tenderness  and  affection  towards  a  relic  or  a  memento  of  some 
beloved  friend.  This  transference  of  the  meaning  to  things  may 
enable  us  to  explain  the  one  passage  to  which  Fritzsche  is  able  to 
appeal,  i  Cor.  vii.,  14.  Paul  is  here  discussing  the  question  whether 
in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages  the  Christian  ought  to  divorce  the  un- 
believer. He  decides  that  separation  should  not  proceed  from  the 
Christian  side,  because  the  unbelieving  husband  or  wife  "is  sancti- 
fied" '  by  union  with  the  believer.  Now  the  Greek  word  does  not 
necessarily  mean  "to  make  holy,"  but  may  signify,  as  no  doubt  it 
does  here,  "to  devote  to  a  holy  purpose."  This  is  illustrated  by 
John  xvii.,  19,  where  Christ  says,  "  for  their  sakes  I  sanctify  [or,  con- 
secrate] myself."     But  it  does  not  follow  that  this  meaning  can  be 

^'Hyia6Tai. 


ROMANS  261 

transferred  to  the  adjective,  and  a  comment  of  Theophylact's  on  the 
passage  in  Corinthians  '  is  very  instrnctive  as  showing  that  the  adjec- 
tive, in  contradistinction  from  the  verb,  carried  with  it  the  idea  of  per- 
sonal holiness  :  "  Not  that  the  Greek  becomes  holy  ;  for  he  did  not 
say  that  he  '  is  holy,'  but,  '  he  has  been  consecrated,'  that  is,  has  been 
overcome  by  the  holiness  of  the  believer."  Paul  gives  a  proof  that 
the  heathen  husband  or  wife  must  be  thus  sanctified  :  if  it  were  not 
so,  the  children  would  be  "  unclean,"  whereas  in  fact  they  are  "  holy." 
Now  I  think  we  must  admit  at  once  that  Paul  does  not  refer  here  to 
the  personal  holiness  of  the  children.  For  the  purposes  of  his  argu- 
ment he  must  refer  to  some  obvious  fact,  and  I  presume  that  fact 
niust  have  been  simply  this,  that  the  children  of  mixed  marriages 
were  treated  as  Christians.  They  are  called  "  holy,"  therefore,  as  mem- 
bers of  a  holy  community,  persons  to  whom  the  characteristic  quality 
of  the  community  may  be  presumed  to  belong,  just  as  the  children 
of  heathen  parents  are  called  "  unclean  "  because  they  are  born 
into  an  impure  and  corrupt  society.  There  is  thus  a  reason  for  the 
imputative  use  of  the  word  in  regard  to  children  ;  but  this  reason 
would  not  exist  unless  the  children  belonged  to  a  corporate  societj' 
of  "holy  ones,"  and  therefore  this  single  example,  instead  of  deter- 
mining the  universal  sense  of  the  term,  presupposes  its  higher  ethical 
significance  in  its  application  to  the  collective  Church.  To  use  a 
simple  illustration  :  in  a  brave  army  we  impute  bravery  to  every 
soldier  till  he  has  proved  himself  a  coward,  but  we  do  so  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  real  and  proved  bravery  of  the  army  as  a  whole.  It 
deserves  notice,  however,  in  this  connection  that  it  is  only  to  the 
collective  Church  or  quite  indefinite  members  of  it,  and  never  to  par- 
ticular individuals,  that  Paul  assigns  the  epithet  "  holy."  This  might 
be  merely  accidental  ;  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  a  reason  for  it. 
The  sanctity  of  the  Church  as  a  society  might  stand  out  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  heathen  depravity  around  it  ;  and  yet  one  might  hesi- 
tate to  call  this  man  or  that  man  holy  lest  we  should  be  ascribing  to 
him  a  personal  character  of  higher  perfection  than  really  belonged 
to  him.  So  far  as  he  was  imbued  with  the  characteristic  spirit  of  the 
Church  he  was  holy  ;  and  yet  you  might  shrink  from  pronouncing 
upon  his  individual  possession  of  that  spirit,  unless  he  possessed  it  in 
a  very  eminent  degree.  Hence  Paul  admits  the  possibility  of  indi- 
vidual corruption  in  the  midst  of  corporate  sanctity.  He  says,  "Know 
ye  not  that  ye  are  a  temple  of  God,  and  the  Spirit  of  God  dwells  in 

'  Quoted  by  Altbrd. 


262  ROMANS  i.,  8. 

you  ?  If  any  man  spoils  the  temple  of  God,  him  will  God  spoil  ;  for 
the  temple  of  God  is  holy,  which  temple  ye  are"  (i  Cor.  iii.,  17). 
A  living  temple  wherein  the  Spirit  of  God  dwells  must  be  distin- 
guished by  real,  and  not  imaginary,  holiness  ;  and  if  any  professing 
Christian  has  none  of  this  Spirit,  he  only  mars  the  sanctuary  with  his 
sacrilegious  presence. 

Our  discussion,  then,  brings  us  to  the  following  result.  In  the 
Pauline  use  of  "  holy  "  the  notion  of  imputation  is  present  only  to  a 
very  limited  extent  ;  and  so  far  as  it  is  admitted,  it  is  based  on  the 
actual  holiness  of  the  Church.  Holiness  enters  essentially  into  the 
ideal  of  the  Christian  character  ;  and  in  the  first  age  this  ideal  was, 
at  least  approximately  and  comparatively,  realised. 

For  the  meaning  of  the  salutation  (i.,  7)  see  the  note  on  Gal.  i.,  3. 

Introductory  statements  :  Paul's  thanksgiving  for  the  faith  of  the 
Roman  Christians,  and  mention  of  his  desire  to  visit  them,  and 
labour  among  them  (i.,  8-15). 

/  thank  my  God  through  Jesus  Christ  (i.,  8). — The  phrase 
"  my  God"  is  found  also  in  i  Cor.  i.,  4;  2  Cor.  xii.,  21  ; 
Philip,  i.,  3,  iv.,  19  ;  Philem.,  4,  and  expresses  a  deep  feeling 
of  God's  intimate  presence  and  His  care  for  the  individual 
life.  It  may  show  that  "  my  Gospel  "  does  not  necessarily 
denote  a  distinctive  Gospel  of  Paul's.  Compare  Christ's 
use  of  the  words  "  my  Father." 

"  Through  Jesus  Christ  "  has  been  explained  of  the  medi- 
atorial function  of  a  priest.  Usage  does  not  sustain  this. 
Paul  exhorts  his  disciples  "through  Jesus  Christ"  (Rom. 
XV.,  30,  where  "  throttgh  the  love  of  the  Spirit  "  is  added  ; 
2  Thess.  iii.,  12),  "  through  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ"  (i  Cor.  i.,  10),  "  through  the  meekness  and  gentle- 
ness of  Christ  "  (2  Cor.  x.,  i),  and  sa5'S  that  he  gave  injunc- 
tions "through  the  L,ord  Jesus  "  (i  Thess.  iv.,  2).  Christ 
was  not  the  medium  through  whom  the  exhortations  were 
conveyed  ;  and  such  expressions  must  therefore  denote  the 
influence  from  which  the  exhortation  proceeded,  and  under 
which  it  was  likely  to  be  received.  Similarly,  it  is  as  quick- 
ened by  Christ's  spirit,  through  him  as  the  inspiration  of  his 
life,  that  Paul  gives  thanks. 


i.,  i6.  ROMANS  263 

The  rest  of  this  paragraph  speaks  for  itself.  Notice 
Paul's  deep  interest  in  the  Roman  Christians,  and  his  pur- 
pose, long  entertained,  of  visiting  them  ;  also  his  including 
them  once  more  among  the  Gentiles. 

Statement  of  the  subject  of  the  Epistle,  for  which  the  declara- 
tion of  his  readiness  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Rome  has  prepared  the 
way  (i.,  16,  17). 

I  a7n  not  ashamed  of  the  Gospel  (i.,  16). — Paul's  experience 
had  shown  him  that  to  the  wise  and  powerful  of  this  w^orld 
the  Gospel  was  an  object  of  scorn,  and  he  might  well  feel 
some  timidity  as  he  thought  of  bringing  the  tidings  of  the 
Crucified  to  the  proud  capital,  where  all  that  was  majestic 
and  imposing  in  the  old  civilisation  was  united  with  bound- 
less power  and  the  haughtiness  of  imperial  supremac}-.  But 
he  was  not  ashamed  of  his  message,  wdiich  alone  was  capa- 
ble of  saving  the  Empire  from  the  demoralisation  that  was 
eating  out  its  life. 

The  words  which  follow  resolve  themselves  into  several 
important  statements.  The  Gospel  was  a  power,  a  living 
force  in  the  individual  and  in  societ}',  in  contrast  with  the 
Law,  which  was  "weak,"  and  unable  to  effect  the  righteous- 
ness which  it  enjoined  (viii.,  3).  The  power  was  of  God. 
The  Gospel  was  no  mere  human  device,  but  God  Himself  was 
working  in  and  through  it  upon  the  hearts  of  men.  The 
object  is  salvation,  deliverance  from  sin,  resulting  in  the  im- 
mortal life  of  sons  of  God.  The  salvation  is  extended  to 
him  who  has  faith,  to  him  who  spirituall}-  apprehends  the 
Divine  love  manifested  in  Christ, -and,  trustfully  surrender- 
ing himself  to  it,  accepts  the  Spirit  of  God  as  the  fountain  of 
his  life.  It  comes  to  the  Jews  first,  both  because  as  a  fact  the 
Gospel  was  first  preached  among  them,  and  because  they 
were  the  chosen  line  through  whom  the  Messiah  was  to 
come  ;  but  it  includes  the  Greeks  because  the  life  of  faith 
was  the  universal  life  of  redeemed  humanity,  and  was  in  no 
way  hampered  by  national  or  legal  restrictions. 


264  ROMANS  i.,  17. 

A  righteousness  0/  God  (hei\.&r,  God'' s  righteousness ,  i.,  17). 
— The  word  translated  "righteousness,"  and  other  cognate 
words,  enter  so  deeply  into  the  theology  of  Paul  that  a 
right  understanding  of  them  is  absolutely  essential.  But 
a  full  discussion  of  their  meaning  would  be  too  long  and 
technical  for  this  small  commentary,  and  I  must  be  content 
with  presenting  here  only  the  briefest  summary  of  the  re- 
sults of  an  investigation  which  I  must  hope  to  find  some 
other  opportunity  of  publishing.  In  opposition  to  the  view 
that  righteousness,  in  the  Pauline  Epistles,  does  not  refer  to 
any  moral  or  spiritual  condition,  but  only  to  an  objective 
relation  between  God  and  man,  established  by  a  forensic 
judgment,  whereby  God  imputes  righteousness  which  has 
no  realit5\  on  the  condition  of  faith  in  the  atoning  death  of 
Christ,  I  believe  that  when  Paul  says  "righteousness"  he 
simply  means  "  righteousness."  But  he  had  come  to  see 
that  there  were  two  antithetical  ideas  of  righteousness. 
There  was  legal  righteousness,  which  consisted  in  outward 
conformit)^  to  a  law  :  the  man  that  ^/rt' what  the  law  required 
was  righteous,  the  law  being  confessedly  the  Divine  rule  of 
conduct.  This  law  was  for  the  Jews  the  Mosaic  code  ;  for 
the  Gentiles  the  commands  of  conscience.  But  conformity 
to  a  law,  even  if  perfect,  which  it  never  was,  was  not  real 
righteousness  as  it  is  in  the  sight  of  God.  In  contrast  with 
this  was  the  "  righteousness  of  God,"  the  eternal  reality, 
God's  own  Spirit  of  holiness,  justice,  and  love,  which,  instead 
of  being  subservient  to  a  law,  is  the  source  of  law.  This 
righteousness  man  receives  through  faith  ;  and  then,  instead 
of  standing  over  against  God  as  a  subject,  he  is  on  the  side  of 
God,  and,  being  led  by  the  Spirit,  is  a  son  of  God.  Hence 
there  is  room  for  forgiveness,  which  has  no  place  under  a 
strict  administration  of  law  ;  and  God  is  able  to  justify  the 
ungodl}^  not  through  a  false,  but  through  a  true  judgment. 
For  as  soon  as  the  sinner  turns  in  faith  to  God,  and  opens  his 
heart  to  the  inflowing  of  Divine  love,  the  reality  of  righteous- 


i.,  i8.  ROMANS  265 

ness  begins  to  dwell  within  him,  the  promise  and  potency  of 
perfect  holiness.  Thus  he  is  emancipated  from  subjection 
to  the  law  by  rising  into  the  Spirit  of  which  law  is  the  ex- 
pression ;  and  thereby  law  is  not  annulled,  but  established, 
and  its  righteous  requirements  are  for  the  first  time  fulfilled. 

It  was  the  revelation  of  this  righteousness  in  the  Gospel 
that  made  the  latter  "the  power  of  God  unto  salvation." 
The  preaching  of  the  Christian  missionaries  awakened  the 
world's  faith,  and,  as  they  set  forth  the  righteousness  of  God 
manifested  in  the  love  and  self-devotion  of  Christ,  many  a 
sin-burdened  soul  turned  heavenward,  and  the  revealed  right- 
eousness began  to  work  as  a  new  leaven  within. 

All  this  is  confirmed  by  an  appeal  to  ancient  Scripture,  Hab. 
ii.,  4,  and  if  Paul  finds  here  a  deeper  meaning  than  was  clear 
to  the  Prophet,  he  only  follows  with  reverent  caution  the 
principle,  which  was  often  grossly  misapplied,  of  finding  in 
vScripture  ideas  which  were  not  apparent  on  the  surface.  This 
and  other  passages  must  have  glowed  for  Paul  with  a  new 
significance  when  he  read  them  again  with  Christian  eyes. 

The  evidence  of  universal  sinfulness,  showing  the  need  of  uni- 
versal salvation,  is  presented  as  the  first  step  in  the  Apostle's 
argument,  extending  as  far  as  iii.,  20.  The  case  of  the  Gentiles  is 
taken  first,  and  then  that  of  the  Jews :  and  the  whole  subject  is  in- 
troduced by  a  reference  to  the  wrath  of  God  (i.,  18). 

"For  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven." 
' '  Wrath  ' '  is  the  word  used  to  denote  the  Divine  displeasure 
and  punitive  judgment  against  sin.  "  For"  gives  a  reason 
for  the  foregoing  statement  :  God's  righteousness  is  being 
revealed  because  His  wrath  is  being  revealed.  It  seemed 
to  Paul  that  a  decisive  crisis  in  human  affairs  was  nmni- 
fest.  God's  righteousness  was  dawning  on  the  world  in 
the  "  spirit  of  holiness,"  which  dwelt  in  Christ.  In  anti- 
thesis to  this  were  the  unnatural  vices  and  crimes  of 
heathenism,  which  displayed  themselves  with  unblushing 
openness,  and  which  proved  that  God  had  "  given  men  up  " 


266  ROMANS  i.,  19-28. 

(a  phrase  thrice  repeated)  to  the  loathsome  results  of  their 
inward  iniquity.  These,  if  unchecked,  could  end  only  in  a 
great  catastrophe  of  merited  retribution.  This  was  becom- 
ing apparent,  was  being  "revealed,"  to  every  unspoiled 
conscience.  The  two  revelations,  accordingly,  helped  one 
another  ;  and  the  darkness  of  sin  made  all  the  more  splendid 
the  righteousness  which  had  come  to  seek  and  save. 

The  deplorable  character  of  heathenism  is  now  painted  in  detail 
in  the  darkest  colours  (i.,  19-32). 

In  considering  these  verses  it  must  be  sufficient  here  to 
notice  certain  important  implications.     Observe  : 

1.  That  men  have  by  nature  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
God  and  of  His  will  to  leave  them  without  excuse  (i., 
20). 

2.  That  God's  power  and  divinity  (rather  than  His  good- 
ness and  love)  are  the  attributes  most  clearly  revealed  by 
the  works  of  creation  (i.,  20). 

3.  That  the  loss  or  perversion  of  faith  is  the  source  of 
unrighteousness  (i.,  24,  26,  28).  This  is  the  other  side 
of  the  doctrine  of  righteousness  by  faith,  and  may  help  to 
illustrate  it.  Depraved  morals  must  spring  sooner  or  later 
from  a  lowered  spiritual  vitality. 

4.  That  the  punishment  for  our  departure  from  God  is 
that  we  are  given  over  to  the  sensual  and  brutal  nature 
(i.,  24  sqq.).  This  is  the  only  punishment  which  the 
Apostle  mentions  in  this  passage. 

5.  That  the  outward  deterioration  of  our  life,  with  all  its 
attendant  misery  to  the  individual  and  to  society,  as  the 
consequence  of  the  repudiation  of  faith,  is  oi  Divine  appoint- 
ment (i.,  24,  26,  28). 

There  is  nothing  in  the  present  passage  to  indicate  that 
Paul  regarded  this  description  of  the  state  of  morals  as  uni- 
versally applicable.  Though  tracing,  as  he  proceeds,  deli- 
cate moral  laws,  he  is  now  dealing  with  men  in  the  mass, 
and  describing  the  general  appearance  of  the  heathen  world 


i.,  32-11.,  I.  ROMANS  267 

as  it  must  have  presented  itself  to  every  pure  and  noble- 
minded  man.  It  seemed  full  of  moral  corruption,  and, 
owing  to  the  falsity  of  its  principles,  to  have  no  recuperative 
power.  But  no  one  would  have  admitted  more  joyfully  that 
in  every  nation  there  were  some  who  feared  God  and  worked 
righteousness.     This  indeed  is  implied  in  ii.,  14. 

Again,  it  deserves  notice  that  in  condemning  the  religious 
position  of  the  Gentiles  he  does  not  trace  all  their  aberra- 
tions to  faulty  doctrine,  but  insists  that  they  knew  God  ;  and 
the  one  falsity  which  he  ascribes  to  them  is  the  practical 
falsity  of  worshipping  the  created  instead  of  the  Creator. 
Accordingly  his  sad  picture  of  the  .state  of  society  is  drawn, 
not  from  the  absurd  notions  which  he  might  have  found  in 
such  abundance,  but  entirely  from  the  domain  of  the  affec- 
tions and  the  will,  along  with  the  practices  which  spring 
from  their  depraved  condition. 

Knowing  the  07-dinance  of  God,  that  they  ivhich practise  such 
things  are  worthy  of  death  (i.,  32). — We  have  here  the  first 
intimation,  in  the  Epistle,  of  any  connection  between  sin 
and  death.  It  is  a  connection  known  to  sinful  Gentiles, 
known  therefore  to  the  common  con.science  of  mankind. 
What,  then,  does  conscience  testify  ?  Is  it  not  precisely 
what  Paul  says,  that,  if  we  live  a  selfi.sh  and  sensual  life,  we 
deserve  to  die  ?  Such  a  life  is  a  blot  upon  the  universe  ;  and 
no  man  can  solemnly  place  himself  before  the  Divine  judg- 
ment, and  maintain  that  it  is  and  ought  to  be  the  eternal 
life. 

Statement  of  principles,  partly  deduced  from  the  foregoing  pas- 
sage, and  leading  clearly  up  to  the  case  of  the  Jews  (ii.,  1-16). 

These  principles,  when  thus  stated  in  the  abstract,  are  of 
such  a  character  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  accept  them. 
The  dependence  of  this  chapter  on  the  preceding  is  indicated 
by  wherefore  (ii.,  l),  and  the  connection  may  be  thus  given  : 
if  the  knowledge  which  the  Gentiles  possess  of  God  and  of 


268  ROMANS  ii.,  1-16. 

the  doom  pronounced  by  conscience  upon  moral  depravity- 
leaves  them  without  excuse,  it  follows  that  everyone  who, 
by  judging  his  neighbour,  lays  claim  to  a  knowledge  of 
moral  distinctions,  a  fortiori  leaves  himself  without  excuse 
when  he  practises  the  very  things  which  he  condemns. 
The  principles  may  be  enunciated  as  follows : 

1.  Moral  judgment  is  virtually  an  acknowledgment  of 
moral  obligation  (ii.,  i). 

2.  All  men,  Jew  as  well  as  Greek,  are  subject  to  the  Divine 
judgment  (ii.,  2,  6-16). 

3.  This  judgment  is  according  to  truth,  answering  to  the 
reality  of  things,  and  not  guided  by  any  conventional  stand- 
ard (ii.,  2).  We  may  observe  in  passing  that  this  principle 
is  as  luminous  in  statement  as  it  is  obviously  just  in  fact, 
and  any  interpretation  of  Paul's  teachings  which  contra- 
venes it  must  be  wrong. 

4.  The  Divine  judgment  is  conducted  without  respect  of 
persons  :  all  will  be  judged  impartially  by  the  same  standard 
(ii.,  II  sqq.). 

5.  Its  sentence  is  given  in  accordance  with  everj''  man's 
work,  according  to  the  whole  scope  and  tenor  of  the  life, 
including  the  most  secret  acts  (ii.,  6-10,  13-16).  It  has 
been  supposed  that  this  is  inconsistent  with  Paul's  polemic 
against  justification  by  works  of  the  law,  and  that  therefore 
he  is  here  speaking  as  a  Jew  to  Jews.  But  in  order  to  see 
that  the  principle  is,  in  his  view,  of  universal  application  we 
may  compare  i  Cor.  iii.,  13-15,  2  Cor.  v.,  10,  Gal.  vi.,  7, 
8,  and,  if  we  accept  these  Kpistles  as  Paul's,  Eph.  vi.,  8, 
Col.  iii.,  25.  We  see  from  these  passages  that  it  was  no  part 
of  Paul's  Gospel  to  offer  men  a  substitute  for  the  duty  of 
living  well.  The  difficulty  is  solved  by  Christ's  principle, 
"The  tree  is  known  by  its.  fruit"  (Mt.  xii.,  33).  A  few 
good  works,  and  many  ritual  works,  may  be  done  while  the 
heart  is  bad  ;  but  bad  works  cannot  proceed  from  a  good 
heart,  and  "  patience  in  well-doing,"  giving  its  rich  quality 


ii.,  4-22.  ROMANS  269 

to  the  whole  outward  manifestation  of  life,  cannot  proceed 
from  an  evil  spirit. 

The  goodness  of  God  leadeth  thee  to  repentance  (^x.^  4). — The 
danger  of  abusing  the  patience  of  God  is  here  pointed  out. 
We  may  think  that  He  is  indifferent  to  the  sin  of  ourselves  or 
of  others  ;  but  His  goodness  is  intended  to  lead  us  to  repent- 
ance, and,  if  we  obstinately  resist  it,  we  only  accumulate 
greater  condemnation  when  the  time  for  forbearance  is  over. 

Gentiles  which  have  no  law  (ii.,  14). — Though  the  Greek 
word  for  law  has  no  article,  Paul  probably  refers  here  to  the 
Mosaic  Law.  All  civilised  Gentiles,  and  not  least  the  Ro- 
mans, had  laws,  so  that  the  xVpostle  must  refer  to  a  written 
law  which  furnished  the  Divine  standard  of  human  life. 
Most  Gentiles  did  not  govern  their  daily  conduct  by  refer- 
ence to  such  a  law,  but,  if  they  were  virtuous  men,  trusted 
to  the  natural  conscience  as  their  guide.  It  is  clearly  implied 
that  the  natural  conscience  might  lead  them  right. 

One  with  another  (ii.,  15). — The  reference  is  uncertain. 
Either  the  "thoughts"  are  personified,  and  represented  as 
holding  mutual  debate,  or  the  allusion  is  to  the  judgments 
which  different  men  pass  on  one  another. 

The  Jews  not  justified  by  the  Law  (ii.,  17-iii.,  20). 

They  had  not  kept  the  commandments  which  they  imposed  upon 
others  ;  and  the  true  and  only  valuable  distinction  of  a  Jew  was  in 
the  spirit,  not  in  the  form,  which  is  worthless  unless  it  represent  an 
inward  reality  (ii.,  17-29). 

Dost  thou  rob  temples  f  (ii.,  22). — Reference  is  made  by  com- 
mentators to  Deut.  vii.,  25, — "  The  graven  images  of  their 
gods  shall  ye  burn  with  fire  :  thou  slialt  not  covet  the  silver 
or  the  gold  that  is  on  them,  nor  take  it  unto  thee,  lest  thou 
be  snared  therein  :  for  it  is  an  abomination  to  the  Lord  thy 
God"  ; — to  Josephus,  A7it.,  IV.,  viii.,  10,  who  refers  to  a 
command  not  to  rob  foreign  temples  ;  and  to  Acts  xix.,  37, 
where  the  town  clerk  says  that  Paul  and  his  friends  were  not 
"  robbers  of  temples." 


270  ROMANS  ii.,  24-29. 

Even  as  it  is  written  (ii.,  24). — The  reference  is  to  Isaiah 
lii.,  5,  where,  however,  the  blasphemy  is  on  the  part  of  op- 
pressors, who  scoflf  at  the  afflictions  of  the  people.  Paul, 
adopting  the  words  as  suitable  to  his  purpose,  gives  them  a 
totally  different  application  from  that  intended  by  the 
Prophet. 

Judge  thee  (ii.,  27)- — Observe  the  use  of  the  word  "judge," 
referring  not  to  the  exercise  of  judicial  functions,  but  to  the 
standard  of  judgment.  So  when  Paul  says  that  God  will 
judge  men  through  Jesus  Christ  {v.  16),  though  he  probably 
expected  Christ  formally  to  exercise  the  office  of  judge,  we 
must  include  the  idea  that  in  him  resided  the  principles  of 
judgment  by  which  men's  lives  would  be  tested. 

He  is  not  a  Jew  which  is  one  outwardly  (ii.,  28). — Observe 
the  spiritual  sense  which  is  here  attached  to  the  word  "Jew," 
as  elsewhere  to  "  Israel  "  (Gal.  vi.,  16).' 

In  the  spirit,  not  in  the  letter  (ii.,  29). — Circumcision  was 
supposed  to  have  a  symbolical  or  spiritual  meaning.  Philo- 
sophical Jews  defended  the  practice  by  dwelling  on  its 
spiritual  significance,  but  at  the  same  time  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  letter  of  the  commandment.  Paul,  on 
■the  other  hand,  contended,  not  only  that  the  literal  ob- 
servance was  worthless  if  it  failed  of  its  spiritual  end,  but 
also  that,  if  the  latter  were  secured,  the  need  of  the  symbol 
dropped  away. 

We  must  pause  here  for  a  moment  to  reflect  on  this  im- 
peachment of  Judaism.  It  seems  extraordinarily  feeble  in 
comparison  with  the  scathing  exposure  of  heathenism. 
Thefts  and  adultery  are  the  only  moral  faults  which  are 
directly  attacked  ;  and  we  cannot  suppose  that  they  were  so 
common  as  to  give  an  obvious  taint  to  the  whole  of  the 
popular  life.  On  Paul's  own  showing,  therefore,  the  moral 
life  of  the  Jews,  if  it  fell  far  short  of  the  Divine  require- 

'  Compare  Apost.  Const.,  v.,  18  ;  Christ  was  crucified  vno  tcSv 
ipEvdojvi/jucoy  'lovdai'oov. 


iii.,  1-8.  ROMANS  271 

ments,  nevertheless  was  incomparably  superior  to  that  of  the 
heathen  world  ;  and  to  this  extent  the  Law  had  not  failed. 
We  must  also  remember  with  sorrow  that  if  Christianity 
were  subjected  to  this  line  of  argument,  it  would  be  utterly 
condemned  ;  for  we  may  find  in  so-called  Christian  countries 
all  the  moral  faults  which  are  here  ascribed  to  Gentiles. 
We  may  ask,  then,  have  the  promises  of  Christianity  failed? 
We  answer,  no  ;  but  their  fulfilment  is  immeasurabl}^  slower 
than  Paul  anticipated.  He  felt  that  for  him  the  Law  was 
dead,  and  that  a  higher  principle  of  life  had  found  him, 
which  he  thought  was  speedily  to  conquer  the  world.  It 
is  the  mistake  of  all  noble  enthusiasms  ;  and  it  will  be  well 
if  we  who  have  learned  from  history  the  slow  operation  of 
Divine  causes  can  retain  our  enthusiasm,  and  an  unshaken 
faith  in  the  power  of  that  Christian  ideal  which  is  still 
working  as  a  hidden  leaven  in  the  heart  of  societ}^ 

Consideration  of  difficulties  arising  out  of  the  foregoing  conten- 
tion that  Je^ws  as  well  as  Gentiles  would  be  judged  according  to 
truth,  on  precisely  the  same  principles  (iii.,  i-8). 

This  is  a  very  obscure  passage,  and  its  meaning  cannot 
be  determined  with  certainty.  It  evidently  consists  of  ob- 
jections and  replies,  and  our  first  question  is.  Who  makes 
the  objections  ?  I  think  they  may  be  difficulties  which  the 
Apostle  himself  felt,  and  which  may  have  existed  in  the 
minds  of  other  Jewish  Christians,  and  even  of  Gentile 
Christians  who  were  imbued  with  the  teaching  of  the  Old 
Testament.  This  view  is  favoured  by  the  following  con- 
siderations :  (i)  The  argument,  though  relating  to  unbe- 
lieving Jews,  is  not  addressed  to  them,  but  to  Christians 
who  needed  to  be  confirmed.  Paul  is  most  likely  to  meet 
their  difficulties  and  his  own.  (2)  The  objections  as  com- 
ing from  an  unbelieving  Jew  are  very  obscure,  and  the 
answers  unsatisfactory.  (3)  Paul  felt  a  deep  interest  in  his 
people  ;  and  their  being  apparently  cast  off",  while  the  tide 
of  religious   life  and  thought  swept  past  them,  may  well 


272  ROMANS  iii.,  i-6. 

have  perplexed  him,  when  taken  in  connection  with  ancient 
promises,  which  were  certainly  true,  but  might  have  been 
misinterpreted.  (4)  The  difficulties  arise  naturall}'  out  of 
the  great  truth  at  which  Paul  had  arrived,  of  God's  im- 
partial judgment,  and  of  the  dependence  of  responsibility  on 
privilege.  (5)  In  his  more  elaborate  argument,  ix.-xi.,  he 
seems  to  attribute  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  unbelief 
of  the  Jews  ;  and  historically  it  was  so  to  a  great  extent,  so 
that,  in  the  words  of  the  present  passage,  the  unrighteous- 
ness of  the  Jews  commended  the  righteousness  of  God. 

We  may  now  present  the  substance  of  the  difficulties  and 
their  solution  in  the  following  way  :  (i)  The  real  distinc- 
tion of  the  Jew  consisted  in  his  means  of  instruction,  not  in 
exemption  from  the  general  standard  of  judgment  (iii.,  I, 
2).  (2)  Could  the  want  of  faith,  not  of  the  whole  people, 
but  of  some,  make  void  the  faith  of  God,  and  cancel  the 
distinctions  which  He  accorded  to  the  Jews  ?  Surelj^  not : 
sooner  than  admit  the  least  stain  on  the  truthfulness  of 
God  we  must  suppose  that  every  man  has  been  false,  through 
self-will  and  presumption  maintaining  the  falsehood  of  God's 
favouritism,  so  that  the  ways  of  God  are  justified  in  placing 
all  on  one  level,  agreeably  to  the  words  of  Psalm  li.,  4  (as 
they  stand  in  the  Greek  translation)  (iii.,  3,  4).  (3)  But 
if  true  righteousness,  shown  in  the  justice  and  impartiality 
of  God,  is  proved  by  the  Jews'  unrighteousness,  if  this 
dream  of  favouritism  is  dissipated  by  the  sad  spectacle  of 
Jewish  sinfulness,  ought  not  this  fact  at  least  to  exempt  them 
from  condemnation  and  punishment  ?  That  cannot  be  ad- 
mitted ;  for  then  there  would  be  no  fixed  principle  by  which 
God  could  judge  the  world,  it  being  the  function  of  a 
judge  to  punish  sin  (iii.,  5,  6).  (4)  To  put  the  matter  more 
clearly  :  if  the  truth  of  God's  impartial  justice  is  so  gloriously 
established  in  the  world  precisely  by  means  of  the  false  as- 
sumption of  the  Jews,  which  falsehood  was  in  part  the 
parent  of  their  sin,  then  ought  they  to  be  punished  as  sin- 


iii.,  9-19.  ROMANS  273 

ners  ?  Yes  ;  or  else  the  maxim  would  be  established  that 
we  may  do  evil  that  good  may  come.  A  man  is  equally 
guilty,  though  God  may  overrule  his  evil  for  good  (iii., 
7,8). 

The  character  of  the  Jews  is  painted  (in  words  which  apply  also 
to  Greeks)  in  the  darkest  colours  by  their  own  writers  (iii.,  9-19). 

Are  we  in  worse  case  than  they  f  (iii.,  9). — This  translation 
is  approved,  not  only  by  the  Revisers,  but  by  other  modern 
scholars.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  certain,  and  it  does 
not  appear  suitable  to  the  context  ;  for  the  object  is  to  show 
that  the  Jews  are  in  as  bad  a  case  as  the  Greeks,  and  there 
has  been  nothing  to  suggest  that  they  were  in  a  worse  case. 
The  old  and  ordinary  way  of  understanding  the  expression 
is,  "Are  we  better  than  they?"  The  form  of  the  Greek 
verb  is  opposed  to  this  ;  and  still  it  is  some  support  of  this 
more  satisfactory  meaning  that  the  word  was  so  explained 
by  men  who  spoke  Greek.  We  must  be  content  here  to 
leave  it  undecided. 

The  string  of  scriptural  quotations  which  follows  might 
seem  inapplicable  to  the  existing  generation  ;  but  Paul's  ob- 
ject is  to  show,  not  that  Jews  of  any  particular  time  were 
sinful,  but  that  the  fact  of  their  being  Jews  did  not  exempt 
them  from  liability  to  sin  and  punishment,  and  descriptions 
of  their  past  condition  by  contemporary  writers  would  fairly 
answer  this  purpose. 

The  law  (iii.,  19),  here  used  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a 
whole,  the  Prophets  and  Hagiographa  being  regarded  as  an 
extension  of,  or  commentary  on,  the  Law. 

Every  mouth,  .  .  .  at/ the  world  (iii.,  19). — The  citations  from 
Scripture  applied  to  the  Jews  ;  and  therefore  as  the  sinfulness 
of  the  Gentiles  was  conceded,  it  followed  that  all  the  world 
was  placed  upon  the  same  level  before  the  Divine  judgment. 
Observe  the  generalisation  that  man  as  man  is  sinful.  Thus 
the  Law  is  made  to  obliterate  the  very  distinctions  which  it 
was  commonly  used  to  foster. 


274  ROMANS  iii.,  19,  20. 

We  should  notice  the  phrase  To  them  thai  are  tinder  the 
law  QSx.^  19) — The  Greek  is  "in  the  law,"  so  that  it  ex- 
actly corresponds  with  the  expression  "in  Christ,"  and 
points  out  the  principle  in  which  men  lived. 

Enunciation  of  the  principle  on  which  the  foregoing  depends,  and 
of  the  function  of  law^  (iii.,  20). 

The  principle  is  that  by  works  of  law  shall  no  flesh  be 
justified  in  the  sight  of  God.  "  Law  "  has  no  article  in  the 
Greek  ;  and  if  the  I^aw  of  Moses  be  intended,  still  it  is  re- 
garded simply  in  its  character  of  law,  and  the  statements 
made  are  applicable  to  all  law  as  such.  The  principle  is 
affirmed  like  an  accepted  Christian  maxim,  which  involves 
the  previous  contention,  that  Jew  and  Gentile  are  on  the 
same  level  in  the  Divine  judgment.  The  inability  of  law 
to  justify  is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  function  is  not  to  reveal 
the  absolute  nature  of  righteousness  or  to  communicate 
moral  power,  but  through  its  Divine  prohibition  of  evil- 
doing  to  give  a  clear  knowledge  of  sin.  Mere  law  can  never 
awaken  the  higher  affections  and  aspirations,  but  by  stand- 
ing in  our  way  it  makes  us  conscious  of  something  in  us 
which  runs  counter  to  its  requirements,  which  requirements 
we  are  nevertheless  constrained  to  approve. 

Manifestation  of  the  righteousness  of  God  ;  its  manner  and  result 
(iii.,  21-26). 

This  passage  introduces  the  new  Christian  principle,  on 
which  Paul  bases  his  opposition  to  Jewish  legalism.  It  is 
one  of  extreme  difficulty,  not  only  on  account  of  the  brevity 
of  expression  and  the  ambiguity  of  some  of  the  leading 
terms,  but  because  it  is  encrusted  with  the  ideas  of  a  later 
age,  and  with  the  associations  of  doctrinal  controvers)^  so 
that  the  mind  involuntarily  reads  into  it  notions  which  it 
does  not  contain.  It  would  be  impossible  in  our  space  to 
attempt  an  adequate  discussion  of  various  views  ;  and  I  must 
be  content  to  sketch  out  certain  lines  of  suggestion,  which 


iii.,  21,  22.  ROMANS  275 

appear  to  me  to  indicate  with  the  greatest  probability  the 
real  meaning  of  the  Apostle.  We  must  attend  first  to  the 
principal  terms. 

A  righteousness  0/  God  {iii.,  21). — The  indefinite  article  here  seems 
to  imply  that  God  had  different  kinds  of  righteousness  ;  but  as  there 
is  nothing  in  the  Greek  to  suggest  this,  it  would  be  better  to  translate 
either  "  the  righteousness  of  God,"  or  simply  "  God's  righteousness." 
In  interpreting  this  phrase  the  following  points  should  be  observed  : — 
(i)  It  must  have  the  same  meaniug  throughout.  (2)  It  stands  in  oppo- 
sition to  "sin"  in  the  previous  verse  ;  and  as  sin  so  far  has  had  a 
purely  ethical  meaning,  it  is  probable  that  "righteousness"  also  is 
used  in  a  strictly  ethical  sense.  (3)  It  resumes  the  statement  of  i., 
17,  and  therefore  must  have  the  same  meaning, — real  righteousness, 
as  it  is  in  God,  in  contrast  with  legal,  or  merely  external  righteous- 
ness. (4)  For  these  reasons  it  cannot  mean  punitive  justice.  This 
is  made  certain  by  verse  22,  where  it  is  explained  that  this  righteous- 
ness is  "  unto  them  that  believe,"  and  by  the  fact  that  Paul  has  a  dis- 
tinct word,  "wrath"  (see  i.,  18),  to  denote  punitive  justice  and  its 
effects.  (5)  It  mu£t  satisfy  several  characteristics  which  are  distinctly 
laid  down  :— (a)  It  must  be  something  that  had  been  manifested  at  a 
particular  time,  and  was  being  continuously  revealed  (iii.,  21  ;  i.,  17). 
(b)  The  manifestation  must  be  "  apart  from  law"  ;  not  depending  on 
a  written  code  or  communicated  by  legal  teaching,  (c)  Yet  this  right- 
eousness was  borne  witness  to  by  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  which 
testified  to  an  inward  law  of  righteousness,  written  in  the  heart, 
though  they  did  not  perfectly  reveal  it.  (d)  It  was  shown  by  the  death 
of  Christ,  (e)  It  was  apprehended  through  faith,  (f )  It  was  needed  by 
all,  inasmuch  as  all  had  sinned,  and  fell  short  of  the  glory  of  God. 
All  these  conditions  are  satisfied  when  we  take  the  words  in  their 
natural  sense  of  real  and  eternal  righteousness.  The  inner  essence 
of  this  righteousness  is  love.  It  was  His  love  that  God  commended 
towards  us  in  the  death  of  Christ  (v.,  8)  ;'and  the  Christian's  life  con- 
sists in  the  love  of  God  shed  abroad  in  his  heart  through  the  Holy 
Spirit  (v.,  5).  Paul  uses  the  word  righteousness  here  instead  of  love, 
because  the  question  in  dispute  was.  What  is  the  nature  of  real  right- 
eousness, and  when  is  a  man  accounted  righteous  in  the  sight  of 
God? 

Faith  ill  Jl'sus  Christ  {iii.,  22). — The  Greek  has  simply  the  genitive 
and  might  be  translated  "Jesus  Christ's  faith."  The  other  transla- 
tion, however,  does  no  violence  to  Paul's  thought  (for  see  Gal.  ii.,  16), 


2  76  ROMANS  iii.,  22. 

and  is  admissible  by  the  usage  of  classical  Greek.  There  is,  how- 
ever, only  one  certain  instance  of  this  construction  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Mk.  xi.,  22,  "have  faith  in  God."  There  are  a  few  examples 
of  the  use  of  the  genitive  oi  a.  thing  which  is  the  object  of  faith  ;  but 
these  do  not  fix  its  usage  with  the  genitive  of  a  person.  Now  in  the 
Pauline  writings  "faith  "  is  used  with  the  genitive  of  a  person  other 
than  Christ  at  least  twenty-two  times,'  and  always  in  the  sense  of  the 
faith  belonging  to  the  person,  even  in  the  one  case  where  we  find 
"  the  faith  of  God  "  (Rom.  iii.,  3)  ;  so  that  if  we  are  guided  by  Pauline 
usage,  we  must  interpret  the  genitive  similarly  in  the  eight  cases 
where  the  phrase  is  used  of  Christ.  This  result  is  confirmed  by  the 
following  considerations.  Paul  might  have  removed  all  ambiguity  by 
the  use  of  certain  prepositions,  which  are  actually  used  in  later  Epis- 
tles. An  expression  of  similar  import  is  found  in  later  Epistles, 
which,  even  if  they  are  not  Paul's,  may  be  quoted  as  belonging  to 
the  Pauline  school,— "  Faith  which  is  in  Christ,"  that  is,  the  faith 
(sometimes  combined  with  love)  which  exists  in  him,  and  must  be  ap- 
preciated by  the  disciple.  And  lastly,  the  words  rendered  "faith  in 
Jesus  "  in  iii.,  26,  are  identical  with  the  words  in  iv.,  16,  except  that 
in  the  latter  verse  we  have  "Abraham"  instead  of  "Jesus."  For 
these  reasons  I  am  obliged  to  depart  from  the  prevailing  view.  A 
deeply  interesting  result  follows  :  Paul  attached  a  vital  importance, 
not  only  to  faith  in  Christ,  but  to  Christ's  faith,  and  could  not  regard 
the  former  as  complete  without  the  appropriation  of  the  latter. 
^  This  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  another  significant  fact.  In 
this  great  Epistle  about  Justification  by  Faith  the  word  "faith"  occurs 
38  times,  and  of  these  it  is  used  absolutely  (i.  e.,  without  any  defined 
object)  36  times,  or,  if  the  foregoing  remarks  have  been  correct, 
always.'^  Surely  the  natural  inference  from  this  is  that  Paul  did  not 
mean  by  faith  belief  in  some  definite  object  or  event  or  doctrine,  but 
rather  a  vital  principle  which  was  related  to  the  whole  realm  of  spir- 
itual thought.  The  same  result  follows  from  the  use  of  the  verb  "  to 
believe,  or  have  faith,  in  "  ;  for  not  only  is  this  also  used  absolutely 
several  times,  but  it  is  followed  by  a  variety  of  objects,  agreeably  to 
the  question  under  discussion.  In  its  Christian  sense  it  has  for  its 
object  sometimes  God  (Rom.  iv.,  5,  24),  sometimes  Christ  (Gal.  ii.,  16, 
the  only  doctrinal  passage  where  the  expression  occurs  ;  Philip,  i.,  29  ; 
I  Tim.  i.,  16),  sometimes  a  fact  ("  we  believe  that  we  shall  live  with 

'  Of  which  5  are  in  Rom.,  5  in  Corinth.,  and  5  in  ist  Thess. 
^  141  times  in  all  the  Pauline  Epistles  ;  122  times  absolutely. 


in.,  24.  ROMANS  277 

him,"  Rom.  vi.,  8;  "believe  that  God  raised  him  from  the  dead," 
Rom.  X.,  9  ;  "so  ye  believed  "  [the  facts  connected  with  the  resurrec- 
tion], I  Cor.  XV.,  II  ;  "we  believe  that  Jesus  died  and  rose  again," 
I  Thess.  iv.,  14).  We  must  therefore  understand  faith  in  a  large 
sense,  as  denoting  spiritual  apprehension  and  religious  trust.  No 
doubt  the  Christian  believed  enthusiastically  in  Christ  ;  but  this  be- 
lief was  itself  the  source  and  inspiration  of  that  larger  faith  which 
dwelt  in  Christ  himself,  and  which  permeated  the  whole  character  of 
the  spiritual  man.  It  is  thus  that  men  of  faith  and  men  of  law  form 
an  antithesis  ;  not  that  they  believe  in  different  things,  but  that  the 
whole  quality  of  their  inward  life  is  cletermined  by  different  princi- 
ples. Thus,  too,  the  righteousness  of  law  and  the  righteousness  of 
faith  form  a  contrast,  the  one  being  obedience  to  an  outward  rule,  the 
other  an  inward  surrender  to  the  leading  of  the  Spirit  of  God.  If  we 
overlook  these  distinctions,  we  lose  the  spiritual  coherence  of  Paul's 
thought,  and  are  unable  to  follow  him  as  he  traces  the  permanent 
laws  of  the  religious  life. 

Bcins;  juslificd  freely  by  his  grace  (iii.,  24). — This  perfectly  explicit 
statement  sets  aside  not  only  the  notion  that  men  are  justified  through 
the  merit  of  their  works,  but  every  doctrine  which  represents  jus- 
tification as  purchased  by  the  full  pa3-ment  of  a  substitute.  Every 
denial  of  the  perfect  freedom  of  Divine  grace  and  forgiveness  is  fun- 
damentally anti-Pauline,  and  inadmissible  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
present  passage.  It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  there  is  no  condi- 
tion ;  for  man  may  resist  the  grace  of  God.  The  condition  which 
Paul  lays  down  is  faith,  trustful  surrender  to  the  love  of  God,  that  He 
may  pour  into  us  His  own  life. 

Through  the  rede»iptioii  that  is  in  Christ  yesus  (iii.,  24). — These 
words  indicate  the  historical  medium  through  which  the  free  justifi- 
cation came.  "  Redemption  "  is  a  figurative  term,  and  properly  de- 
notes the  purchasing  of  anyone  out  of  slavery  by  the  paj-meiit  of  a 
ransom.  Accordingly,  though  the  terra  might  be  applied  metaphor- 
ically to  sacrifice,  it  belongs  in  itself  to  'a  wholly  different  region  of 
thought.  The  simple  verb '  from  which  this  word  is  formed  is  used 
repeatedly  in  the  l,xx.,  several  times  in  a  figurative  sense.  We  may 
refer  to  a  few  illustrative  passages.  It  describes  the  delivery  of  the 
Israelites  from  slavery  in  Egypt  (see  for  instance  Ex.  vi.,  6  ;  Dent,  vii., 
8,  xiii.,  5).  David  speaks  of  God  as  having  redeemed  him  out  of  all 
aflBiction  (2  Kings  [Sam,]  iv.,  9).     Isaiah  represents  God  as  saying,  "  I 

'  Avrpooj. 


278  ROMANS  in.,  24. 

redeemed  thee,  I  called  thee  by  thy  name,  thou  art  Mine  "  (xliii.,  i) ; 
and  again,  "  I  wiped  out  .  .  .  thy  sins  ;  turn  to  Me,  and  I  will  redeem 
thee"  (xliv.,  22).  The  Psalmist  also  says,  "  With  Him  is  plenteous 
redemption,  and  He  will  redeem  Israel  out  of  all  his  iniquities  "  (Ps, 
cxxix.,  7,  8).  These  passages  not  only  illustrate  parallel  expressions 
in  the  New  Testament,  but  remind  us  of  a  rule  which  is  often  forgot- 
ten, that  we  must  not  press  figures  of  speech  beyond  the  immediate 
purpose  for  which  they  are  introduced.  The  slavery  iu  Egypt  was 
real ;  but  no  ransom,  even  of  the  most  figurative  kind,  was  paid  to  the 
Egyptians.  In  other  cases  the  slavery  is  metaphorical,  and  the  figure 
denotes  nothing  more  than  release  from  any  kind  of  oppression.'  In 
the  present  passage  the  figure  is  somewhat  more  complete  than  in  the 
Old  Testament  passages.  What  was  the  slavery  which  is  implied  in 
redemption  ?  Paul  answers  that  men  were  the  "  slaves  of  sin  "  (Rom. 
vi.,  16,  17).  Is  any  ransom  implied?  This  is  not  stated  with  equal 
clearness  ;  but  we  may  fairly  accept  as  the  answer  Christ's  own  de- 
claration that  he  gave  his  life  as  a  ransom  (Mt.  xx.,  28) ;  for  this  almost 
inevitably  suggests  itself,  and  is  sufficiently  implied  by  the  reference, 
which  immediately  follows,  to  his  blood.  Christ's  death  was  the  price 
which  was  paid  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  Divine  purposes  of  love, 
justas,  if  Moses  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  rage  of  Pharaoh,  his  life  would 
have  been  the  price  paid  for  the  redemption  of  the  Israelites.  How 
easily  such  a  figure  was  used  when  slavery  was  a  marked  feature  of 
society  we  may  illustrate  from  an  early  Christian  work.  The  Teaching 
of  the  Tzvelve  Apostles.  The  writer,  in  urging  the  duty  of  giving, 
says,  ' '  If  thou  hast,  thou  shalt  give  through  thy  hands  a  ransom  of  thy 
sins."  '^  A  later  writer  says  that  deacons  must  act  like  Christ,  who 
gave  his  life  as  a  ransom,  and  must  not  hesitate,  if  need  be,  to  lay  down 
life  instead  of  a  brother.^  If  we  pass  on  to  the  further  question,  and 
ask  to  whom  the  price  was  paid,  we  are  pushing  the  use  of  figurative 
language  beyond  its  legitimate  limits.  Paul  gives  no  answer,  and  it 
is  not  necessary  that  there  should  be  any  answer.  Origen,  however, 
answers  that  Christ  delivered  himself  up  to  the  enemies  of  the  human 

'For  instance,  airaiv  Xvrpa)6iv  [simply  "deliverance"]  (XTto  vrji 
Aiyv7tria<=,  (Test,  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  Joseph.,  ?  8). 

'^  iv.,  6.     yivrfjGodi?  is  the  word  used. 

^  Apostolical  Constitutions,  iii.,  19.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  says, 
X-urpoodii  t6rt  to  fi(Xitri6na  ^looctrvov  itvpo'i  ditEtXrii  (Cat.,  iii.,  7). 
Philo  says,  nai  doqjui  Xvvpov  k6ri  rov  cpavXov  (De  ss,  Ab.  et  Caini,  \ 
37)- 


iii.,  25.  ROMANS  279 

race  who  were  thirsting  for  his  blood,'  or,  more  definitely,  "to  the 
prince  of  this  world." '■'  This  is  the  only  reasonable  answer;  for  a 
ransom  must  be  paid  to  the  enemy  who  detains  the  captive.  I  think, 
however,  that  in  Paul's  mind  the  figure  had  exhausted  itself  before 
reaching  this  stage. 

Whom  God  set  forth  (iii.,  25). — The  word  translated  "set  forth" 
elsewhere  means  "purposed"  (Rom.  i.,  13;  Eph.  i.,  9).  In  classical 
use,  however,  it  signifies  not  only  "to  purpose,"  but  "to  set  forth 
publicly  "  ^  ;  and  this  seems  to  be  the  most  suitable  meaning  here. 

This  statement  is  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  passage.  In  the  first  place,  God  is  represented  as 
the  agent  in  whatever  transaction  is  referred  to.  If  any  sacrifice  was 
offered,  it  was  He  that  offered  it ;  if  any  propitiation  was  made,  it  was 
He  that  propitiated.  In  the  second  place,  the  word  translated  "set 
forth"  is  not  a  sacrificial  word  ;  and  accordingly,  though  it  does  not 
forbid  a  reference  to  sacrifice,  it  does  not  lead  us  to  anticipate  such  a 
reference. 

A  propitiation  (iii.,  25). — So  our  revisers  render  a  word,^  the  mean- 
ing of  which  is  extremely  doubtful. 

The  word  may  be  a  neuter  adjective,  with  the  word  "sacrifice" 
understood.  Three  instances  in  which  it  has  this  meaning  of  a  pro- 
pitiatory sacrifice  are  cited  from  late  Greek  writers  ;  but  the  use  is  so 
rare  that  we  cannot  be  sure  that  this  sense  would  suggest  itself  to  the 
readers  apart  from  a  context  which  necessarily  implied  it.^  An  ob- 
jection to  this  interpretation  arises  from  the  fact  that  only  in  one 
other  passage  in  all  the  Pauline  Epistles  is  Christ  described  as  a  sacri- 

'  Com.  in  Ep.  ad  Rom,.,  iii.,  7,  p.  203  sq.  Lom. 

*  lb.,  iv.,  II,  p.  308.  See  also  Irenaeus,  v.,  i.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
puts  it  rather  coarsely:  "The  devil  would  not  have  dared  to  ap- 
proach, if  he  had  known  him.  .  .  .  Therefore  the  body  became  a 
bait  for  death,  that  the  dragon,  having  hoped  to  swallow  it,  might 
vomit  out  those  also  who  had  been  already  swallowed  "  [Cat.,  xii.,  15). 

*  It  has  this  sense  also  in  the  l<xx.,  where  it  is  not  of  frequent  occur- 
rence.    Lysias  uses  it  of  exposing  a  corpse  [Contra  Eratosth.,  ^  4). 

*  'IXadtTJptov. 

^  It  may  have  this  sense  in  Fourth  Maccabees,  in  a  sentence 
which  is  otherwise  instructive, — Sid  rov  atnato'i  T(3v  Ev6Eft(av 
eKEivcov  Kai  voij  iXadtrfpiov  rovBavdrov  avrcSv  rj  Qeia  npuvoia 
rov  ''l6par)X  npoHaxooBEVTa  disdoodE  (§  17).  I  cannot,  however,  help 
suspecting  the  article  before  Qavdtov. 


28o  ROMANS  iii.,  25. 

fice, — "Christ  .  ,  .  gave  himself  up  for  an  offering  and  sacrifice  to 
God  for  an  odour  of  a  sweet  smell  "  (Eph.  v.,  2),— and  this  although 
the  figure  of  sacrifice  is  used  five  times  in  relation  to  others  (Rom. 
xii.,  I,  XV.,  16 ;  Philip,  ii.,  17,  iv.,  18  ;  2  Tim.  iv.,  6).  The  mention  of 
the  sweet  smell  clearly  proves  the  figurative  nature  of  the  term  when 
used  of  Christ ;  and  this  indeed  is  sufficiently  evident  from  the  fact 
that  sacrifices  were  not  crucified.  There  is  also  the  comparison  of 
Christ  to  the  Paschal  sheep  which  was  sacrificed  or  slain  (i  Cor.  v.,  7). 
Such  metaphors  were  almost  inevitable  when  sacrifice  so  generally 
formed  apart  of  worship  ;  and  indeed,  down  to  our  own  day,  the  usage  is 
so  inwrought  into  ordinary  language  that  we  almost  forget  that  it  is 
figurative.  Now,  let  us  suppose  that  the  sacrificial  figure  is  used  here. 
Then  it  is  God  that  offers  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  ;  and  as  men  do 
not  offer  sacrifice  in  order  to  propitiate  themselves,  the  intention  must 
be  that  God,  in  His  infinite  and  saving  love,  reversed  the  expected 
relation,  and  sought  to  win  men  from  their  enmity  by  this  gracious 
offering.  I  know  that  this  result  is  too  startling  to  be  immediately 
accepted.  Yet  it  is  quite  in  harmony  with  Paul's  thought.  "  God 
commendeth  His  own  love  towards  us  in  that,  while  we  were  yet  sin- 
ners, Christ  died  for  us  (Rom.  v.,  8);  so,  then,  Christ's  death  was  a 
manifestation,  not  of  God's  punitive  justice,  but  of  His  love.  "  He 
that  spared  not  His  own  Son  "  (Rom.  viii.,  32)  ;  the  sacrifice  then  was 
on  the  side  of  God.  "  All  the  day  long  did  I  spread  out  My  hands 
unto  a  disobedient  and  gainsaying  people  "  (Rom.  x.,  21)  ;  it  was  God 
accordingly  that  offered  supplications  to  sinful  men.  "  God  was  in 
Christ  reconciling  the  world  unto  Himself,  ...  as  though  God  were 
entreating  by  us,  we  beseech  you  ...  be  ye  reconciled  to  God  "  (2 
Cor.  v.,  19,  20)  ;  so  it  is  men  that  are  enemies  of  God,  and  have  to 
yield  up  their  hostility  in  reverence  for  the  great  sacrifice  of  love. 
Nevertheless,  if  Paul  intended  here  this  fulness  of  meaning,  I  cannot 
but  think  that,  in  spite  of  the  very  condensed  language,  he  would 
have  been  more  explicit,  and  I  doubt  whether  the  true  key  of  the 
interpretation  is  to  be  found  in  the  sacrificial  metaphor. 

Again,  the  word  may  mean  a  mercy-seat,  comparing  Jesus  to  the 
mercy-seat  which  covered  the  Ark  in  the  Temple.  This  explanation 
has  been  adopted  by  many  commentators,  but  has  met  with  less 
favour  in  recent  times,  on  the  ground  that  the  figure  is  not  very  ap- 
propriate, and  that  it  becomes  quite  confused  if  we  regard  Christ  as  at 
once  the  mercy-seat,  the  priest,  and  the  victim,  as  Origen  expressly 
does.'  I  long  acquiesced  in  these  objections,  but  can  no  longer  find 
'  Com.  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.,  iii.,  8,  p.  213. 


iii.,  25.  ROMANS  281 

them  convincing.  We  have  to  ask  ourselves  what  meaning  Paul  and 
his  readers  would  naturally  attach  to  the  word.  I  think  Origen  '  is 
right  in  assuming  that  the  Apostle  borrowed  from  the  treasures  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  term  is  not  established  in  classical  speech, 
whereas  in  the  i,xx.,  which  was  well  known  to  Paul,  and  probably  to 
his  readers,  it  is  the  regular  name  for  the  mercy-seat.'^  It  has  this 
meaning  in  the  only  other  place  where  it  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Heb.  ix.,  5.  It  seems  almost  inevitable,  then,  that  the  word 
should  immediately  suggest  this  sense.  The  supposed  confusion  of 
metaphor  is  not  made  in  the  passage  itself,  where  Jesus  is  not  com- 
pared to  either  the  priest  or  the  victim,  or,  if  there  be  a  reference  to 
the  victim  in  the  allusion  to  "  his  blood,"  it  is  not  such  as  to  force  on 
the  reader  a  sense  of  incongruity.  The  metaphor  is  satisfied  when  we 
understand  that  Christ  stands  to  the  Christian  in  the  same  relation  as 
the  mercy-seat  to  the  ancient  Hebrew.  The  Greek  reader,  however, 
would  not  think  only  of  the  material  object,  but  would  attach  to  it 
some  notions  connected  with  the  fundamental  meaning  of  the  word  in 
his  own  language.  Now  Philo,  in  his  allegorising  way,  says  that  the 
"  propitiatory  "  mercy-seat)  was  an  imitation  of  the  propitious  power 
of  God,  and  he  defines  the  propitious  power  as  that  whereby  the  Di- 
vine artist  compassionates  His  own  work,  and  represents  it  as  standing 
in  relation  to  beings  who  will  sin.^  If  similar  thoughts  occurred  to 
Paul,  he  here  describes  Christ  as  the  seat  of  the  Divine  mercy,  through 
which  God  commends  His  love  to  sinful  men.  We  should  also  re- 
member that  in  Exodus  and  Numbers  there  is  no  mention  of  the 
sprinkling  of  blood  upon  the  mercy-seat,  but  it  is  regarded  as  the 
place  where  God  made  Plimself  known  to  Moses,  and  comnmned  with 
him.     In  this  sense  also  the  figure  would  be  applicable  to  Christ. 

Through  faith  (iii.,  25). — It  is  not  immediately  apparent  what  it  is 
that  is  accomplished  through  faith,  and  least  of  all  in  the  ordinary  in- 
terpretation, where  the  setting  forth  and  the  sacrifice  are  supposed  to 
be  entirely  objective.  Then  faith  can  only  be  regarded  as  the  organ 
by  which  the  benefits  are  appropriated  ;  but  nothing  in  the  passage 
suggests  this  idea  of  appropriation,  tw  the  interpretation  which  I 
have  suggested,  the  meaning  must  be  that  it  is  only  through  faith  that 

'  lb.,  p.  206. 

'^  Several  times  in  Ex.,  Lev.,  and  Numbers.  It  is  also  found  in  Eze- 
kiel  xliii.,  14-20,  where  our  translators  render  the  Hebrew  word 
"  settle,"  and  once  in  Amos  ix.,  i,  where  the  reading  is  doubtful. 

3  Dc  Prof.,  l\  18,  19,  i.,  pp.  560,  561. 


282  EOA/ANS  iii.,  25. 

Christ  becomes  to  us  an  expression  of  the  Divine  mercy,  and  that  to 
the  heart  hardened  aj^ainst  spiritual  apprehension  he  ceases  to  be  so. 
Compare  2  Cor.  ii.,  15,  16,  for  the  different  effects  of  the  Gospel  on 
opposite  characters. 

By  his  blood  (iii.,  25).— This  is  so  translated  and  punctuated  by  our 
revisers  as  to  suggest  that  the  propitiation  was  made  by  Christ's  blood. 
The  Greek  is  literally  "  in  his  blood,"  and  the  preposition  need  not 
have  an  instrumental  force.  The  words  connect  themselves  quite 
naturally  with  "  set  forth,"  and  describe  the  fact  that  Christ  endured 
a  violent  death,  in  which  his  blood  was  shed.  It  is  mentioned  here 
because  it  was  the  final  proof  through  which  God  commended  His 
love  towards  us  (Rom.  v.,  8).  It  is  so  common  to  refer  to  a  violent 
death  under  this  term  that  it  is  noticeable  how  seldom  Paul  uses  it. 
In  the  great  Epistles  it  occurs  in  only  one  other  place  (Rom.  v.,  9),  if 
we  except  the  allusions  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  which  belong  to  a  dif- 
ferent region  of  thought.  Elsewhere  it  is  found  only  three  times 
(Eph.  i.,  7,  ii.,  13  ;  Col.  i.,  20).  We  may  compare  the  common  saying, 
"  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church,"  and  Origen's 
statement  that  the  sacrifice  and  blood  of  the  martyrs  were  akin  to  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  and  like  that  sacrifice  weakened  the  power  of  the 
enemy.'  Similarly  the  author  of  Fourth  Maccal)ees,  speaking  of 
those  who  were  martyred  for  the  law,  says,  "  Such  ought  to  be  those 
who  as  priests  administer  the  Law  with  their  own  blood."  '■'  In  such 
expressions  "  blood  "  briefly  describes  the  fact  of  a  violent  death,  and 
the  yielding  up  (the  sacrifice)  of  that  which  is  physically  most  precious 
for  the  sake  of  a  higher  spiritual  good.  Such  deaths  may  have  a 
various  and  wide-reaching  efiicacy  ;  but  the  notion  that,  among  its 
effects,  God  is  appeased  by  blood  is  one  for  which  Paul  is  not  resjwn- 
sible. 

To  show  his  ris;hleoiisncss  (iii.,  25). — This  resumes,  in  the  form  of  a 
purpose,  the  fact  of  manifestation  mentioned  in  verse  21. 

Because  of  the  passing  over  of  the  sins  done  aforetime,  in  the  for- 
bearance of  God  (iii.,  25). — One  of  the  sources  of  doubt  about  the 
reality  of  moral  distinctions  is  found  in  the  apparent  moral  indiffer- 
ence of  Providence.  This  is  referred  to  in  ii.,  4,  5,  where  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  forbearance  of  God  may  be  abused  to  harden  men  in 
their  impenitence.     vSuch   men    must   expect   a  "  revelation   of  the 

'  Com.  in  Ev.  Joan.,  tom.  vi.,  35,  36. 

''■  \  7.  See  also  Apost.  Const.,  v.,  9,  the  genuine  martyr  dvy?/yooyi- 
0aro  T(S  Xoycp  rfji  sudefJsi'a'i  6id  tov  oIheIov  a'ljuaro'^. 


iii.,  26.  ROMANS  283 

righteous  judgment  of  God."  But  a  revelation  of  a  different  kind, 
not  of  righteous  judgment,  but  of  righteousness,  of  which  the  essence 
is  love,  may  be  made  to  men  of  a  different  stamp,  who,  amid  the 
decay  of  morals,  and  in  the  absence  of  clear  providential  government, 
had  begun  to  be  sceptical  about  the  reality  of  goodness,  and  to  fancy 
that  instead  of  being  an  eternal  principle  it  was  a  fleeting  human  con- 
vention, for  which  it  was  not  worth  while  to  make  any  sacrifice.  As 
an  historical  fact,  one  result  of  the  life  and  death  of  Christ  was  a 
clearing  of  the  moral  perceptions  and  a  kindling  of  moral  enthusiasm 
in  the  minds  of  believers  ;  for  it  was  seen  once  more  that  righteous- 
ness was  Divine,  and  demanded  the  absolute  fealty  of  men. 

That  he  might  himself  be  just,  and  the  justifier  of  him  that  hath 
faith  in  fesiis  (iii.,  26). — In  order  to  preserve  the  similarity  of  expres- 
sion which  is  apparent  in  the  Greek  it  would  be  better  to  translate 
"  Be  righteous  and  receive  as  righteous  "  ;  and  the  final  words  should 
be  "him  who  is  of  the  faith  of  Jesus."  For  the  latter  words  see 
verse  22.  Observe  that  "righteous"  and  "receive  as  righteous" 
(or  justify)  are  connected  by  the  simple  copula,  so  that  they  do  not 
separate  into  antithetic  ideas,  but  combine  into  one  idea.  He  who  is 
righteous  accepts,  for  that  very  reason,  the  man  who  comes  to  Him  in 
faith.  This  was  the  end  toward  which  the  manifestation  of  Divine 
righteousness  was  directed.  Through  it  men's  faith  was  awakened  ; 
and  sharing  the  faith  of  Jesus  they  came  home  to  God,  and  found 
peace  in  His  forgiving  grace. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  paraphrase  verses  21-26.  To  give  the  con- 
nection we  must  include  the  latter  part  of  verse  20. 

The  great  function  of  law  is  to  create  a  clear  knowledge 
of  sin.  In  doing  so,  however,  it  bears  witness  to  the  right- 
eousness of  God  (whose  will  it  expresses),  though  it  is  not 
able  to  reveal  its  intrinsic  nature.  This  righteousness  has 
accordingly  been  manifested  apart  from  law,  through  its  pre- 
sentation in  living  form  in  Christ,  and  comes  through  the 
faith  that  inspired  Christ  upon  all  without  exception  who 
have  that  faith.  There  is  no  difference  between  Jew  and 
Gentile,  for  spiritually  men  all  stand  upon  the  same  level  of 
faikire  and  need.  As  men  have  thus  failed  in  the  past  to 
earn  their  acquittal,  and  are  condemned  before  the  bar 
whether  of  revealed  law  or  of  natural  couscieuce,  they  are 


284  ROMANS  iii.,  27. 

now  receiving  forgiveness  and  acquittal  freely  through  the 
grace  of  God,  the  great  instrument  in  this  work  of  grace 
being  the  emancipation  from  an  evil  conscience  and  from  the 
power  of  sin  which  men  find  in  Christ,  whom  God  set  forth 
to  take  the  place,  through  the  agency  of  faith,  of  the  ancient 
mercy-seat,  where  He  made  Himself  known  and  displayed 
His  propitious  feelings  towards  His  people, — set  forth  in  his 
blood,  exposing  him  to  the  agonising  death  of  the  cross,  in 
order  to  exhibit  the  reality  and  nature  and  depth  and  power 
of  His  righteousness,  the  inmost  meaning  of  the  eternal 
spirit  of  goodness,  the  existence  of  which  men  had  begun  to 
doubt,  because  they  interpreted  the  long-suffering  of  God 
into  an  evidence  of  moral  indifference.  This  long-suffering, 
however,  was  exercised  with  the  intention  of  exhibiting 
His  righteousness  clearly  and  persuasively  at  the  present 
time,  with  this  end  in  view,  that  being  righteous  He  may 
receive  as  righteous  those  who  have  the  faith  of  Jesus,  not 
passing  the  inevitable  sentence  of  the  law  upon  their  past 
deeds,  but  freely  forgiving  all  who  turn  to  Him  in  faith,  and 
open  their  hearts  to  the  inflowing  of  His  love. 

Rapid  statement  of  results  suggested  by  the  previous  argument. 
These  results  are  more  carefully  w^orked  out  in  the  succeeding  chap- 
ters, and  relate  to  Jewish  boasting,  to  justification  by  faith,  with 
its  spiritual  consequences,  and  to  the  establishment  of  law  (iii., 
27-31). 

The  glorying  (iii.,  27),  that  is,  the  Jewish  boasting.  De- 
pendence on  an  external  religion,  and  the  idea  that  we  are 
more  favourably  regarded  by  God  on  account  of  our  compli- 
ance with  certain  forms  either  of  thought  or  action,  always 
lead  to  boasting.  The  religion  of  the  spirit,  on  the  other 
hand,  "the  law  of  faith,"  is  inseparably  connected  with 
humility. 

Law  (iii.,  27)  is  clearly  used  here  in  a  wide  sense,  and 
cannot  possibly  mean  the  Law  of  Moses.  Observe  that  in 
Paul's  view  faith  too  has  a  law.     It  is  a  principle  of  order, 


iii.,  28-31.  ROMANS  285 

and  not  of  anarchy  ;  but  it  is  a  law  of  inward  life,  not  of 
extraneous  obedience. 

Therefore  (iii.,  28). — Another  reading  is  "for."  If  we 
retain  "  therefore,''  we  must  regard  the  verse  as  a  general 
conclusion  of  the  whole  argument.  If  we  read  "for"  it 
explains  and  justifies  the  previous  statement. 

Yea,  of  Gentiles  also  (iii.,  29). — We  may  contrast  with  this 
the  saying  of  the  Midrash,  "  I  am  the  God  of  all  who  come 
into  the  world  ;  but  I  am  not  called  the  God  of  all  peoples, 
but  the  God  of  Israel."  ' 

God  is  one  (iii.,  30). — This  verse  indicates  the  spiritual 
meaning  of  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  :  there  was  no 
truth  in  the  supposition  of  national  Gods  ;  and  He  who  is 
God  of  Jew  and  Gentile  alike  would  not  use  different  princi- 
ples of  government  towards  different  peoples  ;  if  He  is  one, 
His  rule  of  justification  also  is  one. 

The  change  in  the  use  of  the  prepositions  and  of  the  article  here, 
kn  Tti'dreooi,  6ux  zi/S  Ttt'dreooi,  has  occasioned  some  difficulty.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  latter  expression  relates  to  the  whole  clause, 
while  the  former  is  connected  immediately  with  nFiJimin'iv,  so  that 
the  meaning  is,  "  who  will  justify  through  faith  believing  Jews,  and 
also  Gentiles."  -  Compare  oi  (o)  kn  {rov)  yujiiou,  iv.,  14,  16,  o  (ol)  he 
TtiCrsGoi,  iii.,  26,  iv.,  16  ;  Gal.  iii.,  7,  9.  On  the  other  hand  we  have  ix 
nidrsoji  duaiioi,  Gal.  iii.,  8. 

£)e  we  viake  the  laiv  of  none  effect  ?  .  .  .  Nay,  we  establish 
the  law  (iii.,  31). — Some  able  commentators  regard  this  verse, 
not  as  the  conclusion  of  the  preceding  argtiment,  but  as  the 
introduction  to  the  argument  in  tht  next  chapter  : — Do  we 
make  void  the  Law  of  Moses  ?  No,  we  establish  it  by  pro- 
ducing an  argument  from  Genesis.  In  order  to  judge  of  this 
we  must  remember  that  the  word  "  law  "  has  no  article  in 
the  Greek,  and  it  would  properly  have  one  here  if  it  denoted 

'  Weber, ///(/.  Thcol.,  p.  58. 

'  The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Rotnatts  Analysed,  by  John  Jones, 
Halifax,  1801. 


286  ROMANS  iii.,  31. 

the  Law  of  Moses.  Again,  the  opening  words  of  the  fourth 
chapter  naturally  form  the  introduction  to  a  new  argument, 
and  if  they  were  meant  to  begin  the  proof  of  the  last  state- 
ment, we  should  expect  to  read  ''For  what  shall  we  say  ?  " 
But  the  most  serious  objection  is  that  the  statement  would 
be  not  only  a  mere  evasion,  but  would  be  directly  counter  to 
the  very  object  which  Paul  had  in  view.  I  therefore  think 
that  this  verse  briefly  describes,  and  summarily  dismisses  an 
objection  which  is  treated  more  fully  afterwards :  Does  this 
new  principle  of  faith  abolish  law,  and  sanction  antinomian- 
ism  ?  Quite  the  contrary  ;  it  places  the  Divine  principle  of 
order  on  a  surer  basis,  and  brings  in  the  righteousness  which 
the  Law  has  failed  to  secure.' 

From  the  announcement  of  the  Christian  principle  we  now  pro- 
ceed to  its  proof,  in  which,  however,  exposition  is  always  mingled, 
so  that  the  force  and  bearing  of  the  principle  become  more  evident 
as  we  advance.  The  arguments  are  of  three  kinds,  and  fill  the  next 
two  chapters.  Chapter  IV.  is  occupied  with  an  argument  from  the 
Old  Testament.  From  this  arises  an  exhortation,  which  is  at  the 
same  time  an  appeal  to  spiritual  experience  (v.,  i-ii).  And  lastly, 
in  the  light  of  this  experience,  a  contrast  is  drawn  between  Adam 
and  Christ,  and  it  is  contended  that  the  universality  of  sin  must 
guarantee  the  universality  of  redemption  (v.,  12-21). 

The  first  argument  is  founded  on  the  case  of  Abraham  (iv.,  1-25). 

The  argument  may  be  briefly  analysed.  It  was  Abraham's 
faith  that  was  reckoned  to  him  for  righteousness.  This  faith 
was  prior  to  circumcision,  which  is  therefore  nothing  more 
than  a  seal  of  the  righteousness  of  faith.  Abraham  accord- 
ingly is  the  spiritual  father  of  all  who  have  faith.  For  the 
promise  is  not  limited  by  law,  which  might  make  it  of  none 
effect,  the  office  of  law  being  the  imposition  of  punishment. 
The  promise,  then,  having  been  given  independentlj'-  of  law, 
no  transgression  can  make  it  void  ;  but  it  rests  on  the  cer- 

'  In  the  Apost.  Const.,  vi.,  22  sq.,  it  is  said  that  Christ  did  not  abolish, 
but  coufirmed  the  natural  law. 


iv.,  1-5.  ROMANS  287 

tainty  of  Divine  grace,  and  is  extended  to  all  who  have 
faith.  Therefore  as  Abraham's  faith  in  God  strengthened 
his  body  which  was  as  good  as  dead,  so  we  must  have  faith 
in  Him  who  raised  Jesus  from  the  dead,  and  such  faith  will 
be  reckoned  to  us  for  righteousness,  whereof  we  have  an 
assurance  in  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord. 

Our  forefather  according  to  the  flesh  (iv.,  l). — The  reading 
of  this  verse  is  uncertain  ;  but  it  seems  to  me  quite  impossi- 
ble that  the  words  can  be  connected  as  they  are  in  this  trans- 
lation. They  would  imply,  in  the  Pauline  usage,  that 
Abraham  was  not  our  father  spiritually  ;  but  that  he  was  so 
is  precisely  the  point  that  the  Apostle  is  anxious  to  prove. 
If  we  connect  "  according  to  the  flesh  "  with  "  hath  found," 
we  obtain  a  suitable  sense  :  had  not  Abraham,  then,  who 
received  the  rite  of  circumcision,  some  outward  and  fleshly 
advantage?  The  answer  is  implied,  that  even  Abraham, 
with  all  his  works  of  obedience,  could  not  boast  towards 
God,  the  Scripture  having  expressly  declared  that  it  was  his 
fiiitli  which  was  reckoned  for  righteousness. 

The  reward  (iv.,  4). — There  may  be  a  reference  here  to 
Gen.  XV.,  i,  where  the  i,xx.  reads,  "  thy  reward  shall  be 
exceedingly  abundant,"  a  promise  which  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  Abraham's  act  of  faith,  and  which  was  not  fulfilled 
by  the  rendering  of  so  much  work  in  return  for  so  much 
pay.  The  principle  so  clearly  stated  in  this  verse  is  not 
universally  admitted  in  Jewish  teaching.  According  to  a 
Midrash  man  acted  under  an  obligation  to  keep  the  com- 
mandments ;  but  God  was  under  no  obligation  to  the  creature, 
and  bestowed  His  gifts,  though  not  unconditionalh-,  never- 
theless from  grace.'  Only  the  law,  the  lights  of  heaven, 
and  the  rain,  were  given  without  previous  human  merit. ^ 

fustificth  flic  ungodly  (iv.,  5)- — Law  can  onh-  pronounce  a 
man  guilty  for  sins  which  he  has  committed  ;  God  can  ac- 

'  Weber, ///t/.  TJicol.,  pp.  303  sq.  ''  lb.,  p.  307. 


288  ROMANS  iv.,  7-17. 

quit,  for  He  can  look  into  the  heart,  and  see  the  faith  that 
trusts  Him,  and  has  brought  the  man,  however  imperfect  he 
may  still  be,  over  to  the  side  of  goodness.  Compare  the 
parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  v^^here  the  latter, 
knowing  only  that  he  is  a  sinner,  commits  himself  to  the 
mercy  of  God,  and  so  is  "justified  "  rather  than  the  Pharisee, 
who  could  only  pride  himself  on  his  outward  virtue,  and  was 
unconscious  of  the  hollowness  within .  The  j  ustification  of  the 
publican  was  not  due  to  arbitrary  imputation,  for  we  our- 
selves feel  the  justice  of  this  judgment.  It  surely  is  that 
humble  trust  in  the  Divine  love  is  the  right  attitude  towards 
God,  and,  as  soon  as  the  heart  is  open  to  the  inflowing  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  real  and  eternal  righteousness  begins  to  take 
possession  of  it,  whereas  the  arrogance  of  the  Pharisee 
placed  him  in  a  wrong  relation  to  God,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
virtuous  deeds,  shut  up  his  soul  against  the  only  fountain 
from  which  true  righteousness  can  proceed. 

The  quotation  (iv.,  7,  8)  from  Psalm  xxxii.  is  admirably 
appropriate.  The  Psalm  shows  how  alienation  and  misery 
arose  from  pride  and  self-reliant  impenitence  ;  but  blessedness 
from  confession  and  penitent  self-surrender  to  God. 

A  seal  of  the  righteousness  (iv.,  II). — This  view  is  different 
from  the  Jewish  doctrine,  according  to  which  Abraham  ful- 
filled the  commandments,  and  was  made  perfect  through 
circumcision.'  The  circumcision  of  a  Gentile  was  called 
"the  seal  of  Abraham,"  or  "the  sign  of  the  holy  cove- 
nant." ^ 

Calleth  the  things  that  are  not  as  though  they  were  (iv.,  17). 
— This  must  refer  primarily  to  the  promised  posterity  ;  but 
there  is  probably  an  allusion  to  God's  power  of  quickening 
the  dead  soul,  and  anticipating  the  perfect  righteousness  in 
us  which  as  yet  we  see  only  through  a  glass  darkly. 

Who  believe  on  him  that  7'aised  Jesus  our  Lord  from  the 

'  \VeheT,Jud.  Thcol.,  pp.  37,  264  sq.  ^  Id.,  p.  76. 


iv.,  24-v.,  I.  ROMANS  289 

dead  (vT.^  24). — Observe  that  in  this  doctrinal  exposition  the 
faith  which  is  to  be  counted  for  righteousness  is  faith  in  God, 
and  it  is  clearly  implied  that  it  is  faith  in  Him  as  the  giver 
of  life.  The  resurrection  of  Jesus  is  ascribed  wholly  to  the 
agenc}'  of  God. 

Who  was  delivered  up  (iv.,  25). — This  is  the  word  which 
is  used  of  the  betrayal,  but  it  is  also  used  by  Paul  to  denote 
the  action  of  God  in  giving  Christ  up  to  death  (Rom.  viii., 
32).  This  delivering  up  was  "  on  account  of"  (better  than 
"for")  our  transgres.sions.  An  historical  (but  not  less  a 
religious)  fact  is  thus  described.  It  was  in  the  struggle 
against  .sin  that  Clirist  fell,  and  in  a  sinless  world  the  tragedy 
of  Calvary  would  never  have  taken  place.  We  need  not 
thrust  into  the  words  a  recondite  theological  idea.  It  would 
not  be  wrong  to  say  that  on  account  of  the  sin  of  .slavery  the 
United  States  were  delivered  up  to  a  terrible  civil  war,  in 
which  many  an  innocent  man  was  given  up  to  die.  But  it 
was  "  on  account  of"  (that  is,  for  the  sake  of)  our  justifica- 
tion that  Christ  was  rai.sed  from  death.  What  precisely  Paul 
meant  by  the  resurrection  has  been  considered  elsewhere 
(under  i  Cor.  xv.)  ;  but  whatever  obscurity  there  may  be  in 
some  parts  of  his  doctrine,  he  was  certainl}-  convinced  that 
Jesus  was  living  and  glorified,  and  had  thus  become  the 
pledge  to  man  of  a  divine  and  immortal  .soulship.  Faith 
might  have  pcri.shed  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  but  the  resur- 
rection drew  it  heavenward,  and  created  that  reliance  on  the 
vivifying  energy  of  God  which,  on  the  human  side,  was  the 
medium  of  justification. 

The  Apostle,  starting  off  from  the  word  "justification  "  at  the 
close  of  the  last  chapter,  now  introduces  a  hortatory  argument 
founded  on  spiritual  experience  (v.,  i-ii). 

Let  us  have  peace  (v.,  I). — The  fact  of  justification  is 
assumed  ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  men  who  had  been 
forgiven,  and  had  entered  on  a  new  life,  might  not  relapse 
into  enmity  against  God.    Hence  the  exhortation  to  "  have," 


290  ROMANS  v.,  2-6. 

that  is,  to  hold  or  retain  the  peace  which  at  the  moment 
existed.  The  tribulation  which  their  faith  involved  might 
tempt  some  to  murmur  against  God.  Observe,  enmity, 
peace,  reconciliation,  are  always  represented  by  Paul  as  on 
the  side  of  man.  In  sinning  men  fight  against  the  will  of 
God  ;  and  they  must  become  reconciled  to  that  will  if  they 
are  to  reach  their  true  end.  God  can  never  become  recon- 
ciled to  their  sin,  else  He  would  cease  to  be  righteous.  Yet 
He  is  not  their  enemy,  who  has  to  be  appeased,  but  their 
Father  who  awaits,  and  in  Christ  entreats,  their  return.  But 
this  love  is,  of  course,  not  inconsistent  with  the  truth  of  judg- 
ment which  recognises  an  enemy  as  an  enemy.  The  love 
which  a  good  father  feels  towards  a  hardened  and  dissolute 
son  is  different  from  the  love  which  he  feels  towards  the  pure 
and  dutiful  ;  but  it  is  the  son  who  has  to  be  reconciled. 

hi  hope  of  the  glory  of  God  (v.,  2). — This  verse  introduces 
a  thought  which  recurs  throughout  the  passage,  and  is  found 
elsewhere,  that  the  new  life  is  not  one  of  fiinshed  excellence, 
but  is  a  blending  of  attainment  and  hope  :  the  presence  of 
spiritual  peace,  a  laying  aside  of  all  hostility  towards  God 
and  goodness,  and  along  with  that  a  looking  forward  to  a 
glory  to  be  revealed. 

Tribulation,  hope,  love  (v.,  3,  5). — In  contrast  with  this 
hope  is  our  present  lot.  But  afflictions  are  the  inevitable 
pangs  of  a  higher  birth.  It  is  a  myster}'  of  the  spiritual  life 
that  the  more  we  suffer  the  more  profoundly  conscious  we 
become  of  the  meaning  and  power  of  that  Holy  Spirit  which 
was  given  us  when  first  our  hearts  were  awakened  to  these 
things,  and  through  this  indwelling  Spirit  we  feel  more 
deeply  the  Divine  love  ;  and  thus  our  hope  of  glorj^,  though 
it  may  seem  to  the  heathen  a  shameful  folly  and  fanaticism, 
makes  us  not  ashamed,  for  we  see  a  glory  which  they  know 
not  of,  and  have  already  in  rich  stream  that  which  we  seek, 
God's  love  within  our  hearts. 

In  due  season  Christ  died  for  the  ungodly  (v.,  6). — Christ- 


v.,  9,  10.  ROMANS  291 

ianity,  not  being  a  mere  miraculous  irruption  into  human 
affairs,  but  part  of  a  great  providential  plan,  had  its  proper 
season  for  appearing  in  the  world,  a  season  when  men  were 
still  weak,  and  yet  ready  for  another  forward  step.  God's 
love  was  brought  home  to  them,  and  the  mystery  of  sorrow 
broken  by  Christ's  death.  It  was  not  unknown  that  men 
should  die  for  the  good  ;  but  the  love  that  sought  out  the 
vilest,  that  despaired  of  none,  and  gave  up  life  in  order  to 
redeem  the  fallen  and  degraded,  this  was  something  new  and 
Divine,  and  revealed  the  meaning  and  power  of  that  love  of 
God  in  communion  with  which  Jesus  lived. 

Being  now  justified  by  his  blood  (literally,  in  his  blood,  "  in  " 
being  instrumental,    v.,   9).— This   partly    resumes,   in   an- 
other form,  the  thought  of  verse  i  :  since,  as  a  fact,  we  have 
been  justified,  the  rest  must  follow.     ' '  Justified  in  his  blood  ' ' 
is  explained  in  the  next  verse  as  "  reconciled  to  God  through 
the  death  of  His  Son."     That  complete  self-sacrifice  of  love 
was  the  means  by  which  men's  hearts  were  touched.     If,  in 
the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  the  offender  had  not  wished 
or  had  not  dared  to  return  home,  and  if  the  elder  son,  know- 
ing his   father's  love,  had  gone  to  seek  him,  and,  having 
entreated    him   to   come  back,   had  been  murdered   by  the 
youth's  dissolute  friends  ;  if,  further,  the  prodigal  had  been 
overcome  by  this  proof  of  affection,  and  sought  once  more 
his  father's  home,  might  he  not  have  said  that  he  had  been 
reconciled  by  his  brother's  death,  that  his  redemption  from 
sin  had  been  at  the  cost  of  his  brother's  blood,  and  that 
the  love  which  had  given  up  so  much  would  give  all  else 
that  was  needful  ?     Such  phrases  as  we  have  here  sound 
harsh  and  strange  when  we  treat  them  as  some  theological 
mystery,  but  become  intelligible  as  soon  as  we  turn  to  the 
natural  springs  of  gratitude  and  affection. 

Much  more  (v.,  9,  10).— The  argument  is  a  fortiori  as  in 
viii.,  32.  When  so  much  has  been  given  we  need  not  fear 
about  the  rest. 


292  ROMANS  v.,  9-1 1. 

The  wrath  of  God  (v.,  9). — As  this  is  something  future  it 
probably  refers  to  some  great  display  of  Divine  retribution 
which  Paul  expected  to  come  upon  the  earth  at  no  distant 
date.  When  that  crisis  came  the  men  who  had  already  been 
reconciled  would  surely  be  safe  amid  the  terrors  of  judgment 
that  were  to  fall  upon  the  wicked. 

Rejoice  i7i  God  (v.,  II). — This  translation  hides  the  con- 
nection with  ii.,  17,  and  iii.,  27,  and  it  is  not  very  apparent 
why  the  translators  have  changed  the  word.  The  Christian 
as  well  as  the  Jew  gloried  in  God  ;  and  the  glorying  that  was 
excluded  by  faith  can  have  been  only  glorying  in  oneself  or 
one's  fancied  distinctions. 

Reconciliation  (v.,  II). — See  verse  i  for  the  meaning  of  the 
term,  and  verse  9  for  the  way  in  which  reconciliation  came 
through  Christ. 

Argument  founded  on  the  antithesis  between  Adam  and  Christ, 
and  the  effects  which  flowed  from  their  acts  (v.,  12-21). 

In  order  that  we  may  do  justice  to  Paul's  thought  in  this 
passage  we  must  consider  what  is  the  central  idea  which  he 
intends  to  illustrate.  The  paragraph  stands  in  close  connec- 
tion (indicated  by  "therefore")  with  the  preceding,  the 
main  thought  of  which  is  the  certainty  of  the  triumph  of 
good  through  God's  reconciling  and  saving  love.  Exactly 
the  same  thought  is  repeated  here  under  a  different  aspect. 
The  doctrine  of  sin  is  not  the  main  doctrine,  but  is  brought 
in  to  exhibit  with  greater  distinctness  the  extent  and  power 
of  the  spiritual  life  which  is  given  to  man  by  the  mercy  of 
God.  Again,  in  estimating  the  weight  of  the  teaching  we 
must  distinguish  between  what  the  Apostle  positively  lays 
down  as  his  own  doctrine  and  what  he  simply  accepts  from 
the  theology  of  the  time.  Now  the  positive  and  original 
doctrine  relates  to  the  effects  of  Christ's  life  ;  the  part  about 
Adam  is  introduced  by  "as,"  indicating  a  view  which  was 
well  known  and  accepted,  and  which  in  fact  is  substantially 


v.,  II.  ROMANS 


293 


accordant  with  what  is  foutid  in  rabbinical  and  other  Jewish 
writings."  Paul's  use  of  the  doctrine  shows  that  he  did  not 
reject  it ;  but  it  occupies  a  very  different  position  from  a  doc- 
trine which  he  had  elaborated  in  his  own  thought,  and  under 
the  influence  of  his  own  spiritual  experience.  Accordingly 
the  idea  that  Adam's  sin  had  any  connection  with  that  of 
mankind  never  recurs  in  the  Apostle's  writings,  whereas  the 
influence  of  Christ's  life  upon  the  soul  of  man  is  continually 
dwelt  upon.  A  similar  remark  applies  to  Paul's  inevitable 
acceptance  of  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis  as  a  record  of 
actual  events.  The  height  of  inspiration  is  disclosed,  not  by 
the  extent  of  historical  and  scientific  knowledge,  but  by 
insight  in  the  interpretation  of  man's  spiritual  nature. 

Bearing  these  cautions  in  mind,  we  may  indicate  .several 
principles  of  great  importance  which  are  here  set  forth  : 

1.  It  was  through  man  that  sin  entered  into  the  world. 
Ke  first  was  endowed  with  the  full  responsibility  of  a  moral 
nature. 

2.  Mankind  is  not  composed  of  a  multitude  of  isolated 
individuals,  but  is  a  community  of  members  mutually  inter- 
dependent, and  animated  by  a  conmion  nature. 

3.  Sin  and  death  are  an  inheritance  into  which,  by  virtue 
of  our  common  nature,  we  are  born.  These,  at  least  in  the 
past,  were  universal  facts. 

'  According  to  the  prevalent  conception  Adam  was  created  pure  and 
blessed  (not  as  Paul's  earthy  and  psychical  man),  but  by  disobeying 
an  express  command  entailed  death  on  himself  and  his  posterity. 
But  as  sin  was  a  matter  of  the  individual  will,  it  could  not  be  inherited, 
and  it  was  therefore  assumed  that  everyone  brought  death  on  himself 
through  his  own  offences.  Even  great  saints,  however,  experienced 
the  common  lot,  lest  the  wicked  should  manage  to  escape  death  by 
hypocritical  acts  ;  but  they  received  compensation,  and  their  soul  was 
taken  away,  not  by  the  angel  of  death,  but  by  the  kiss  of  God.  Fur- 
ther, some  of  the  sinners,  like  Enoch  and  Elijah,  passed  from  the 
earth  without  dying.* 

«  Weher,  Jiid.  Theol.,  pp.  213  sqq.,  246  sqq.  ' 


294  ROMANS  v.,  II. 

4.  We  may  distinguish  between  sin  as  a  principle  of  evil 
which  afifects  the  race,  and  its  results  in  actual  transgressions 
committed  by  the  individual  will. 

5.  Sin  in  the  former  sense  produces  its  appointed  outward 
results  even  in  cases  where  we  may  suppose  there  was  no 
wilful  violation  of  a  known  law.  For  instance,  the  indulg- 
ence of  a  depraved  appetite,  although  through  ignorance  the 
indulgence  may  be  morally  innocent,  will  nevertheless  destroy 
the  health. 

6.  There  is  a  connection  between  sin  and  death,  a.  The 
fact  of  death  has  an  important  bearing  upon  character,  pla- 
cing before  the  conscience  of  all  men  a  solemn  close  to  their 
present  career,  b.  Death  ceases  to  be  death  in  the  Apostle's 
sense  in  proportion  to  men's  goodness.  It  is  onl)-  the  dissolu- 
tion of  an  earthly  tabernacle,  and  a  being  clothed  upon  with 
our  house  which  is  from  heaven.  "The  sting  of  death  is 
sin  "  ;  but  to  sleep  upon  the  bosom  of  God  is  not  to  die. 

7.  By  reason  of  our  intercommunion  the  obedience  or  dis- 
obedience of  one  man  is  a  power  for  good  or  for  evil  in  the 
world,  and,  according  to  its  degree,  affects  the  whole  mass. 

8.  The  spiritual  life  is  the  inheritance  of  man  as  man  even 
more  certainly  than  sin  and  death.  For  the  latter  are  a 
violation  of  the  normal  or  ideal  nature  of  man  ;  the  former 
i)elongs  to  him  in  the  Divine  idea  and  purpose, — but  every- 
thing in  its  own  order,  the  higher  succeeding  the  lower. 

9.  Christ  is  a  far  truer  representative  of  the  special  en- 
dowments of  human  nature  than  Adam.  The  one  is  the 
type  of  the  psychical,  the  other  of  the  spiritual  man. 

10.  From  the  last  two  statements  we  maj^  infer  (agreeably 
to  the  general  thought  of  the  Apostle)  that  sin  and  death 
are  the  elements  which  are  to  be  conquered  and  destroyed, 
while  the  spiritual  life  is  to  rule  with  ever  increasing  power. 

11.  The  loving  providence  of  God  is  ever  working  against 
sin  and  death,  and  will  at  last  surely  bring  in  the  reign  of 
righteousness  and  love. 


v.,  12-20.  ROMANS  295 

Sm  entered  into  the  world  (v.,  12),  Sin  reigned  (v.,  2l), 
Death  reigned  (v.,  14,  17),  So  might  grace  reign  (v.,  2l),  The 
lata  came  in  beside  (v.,  20). — Observe  the  personifications, 
which  prove  that  not  everything  to  which  personality  is  as- 
cribed is  forthwith  to  be  regarded  as  personal  in  the  thought 
of  Paul.  Sin  here  takes  its  place  with  death,  grace,  and 
law  ;  and  therefore,  although  it  is  a  power  which  corrupts 
us,  and  is  not  the  creation  of  the  individual  will,  it  does  not 
follow  that  Paul  looked  upon  it  as  personal,  and  identified  it 
with  the  devil.  His  allusions  to  satanic  power  elsewhere 
may  be  sufficient  to  prove  that  he  held  the  current  belief; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that  where  he  expressly  lays  down  his 
doctrine  of  sin,  he  omits  all  reference  to  diabolical  agency. 

l^he  one  man,  Jesus  Christ  (v.,  15). — Here  Paul  applies  the 
word  "  man  "  to  Jesus  without  any  qualification  ;  and  not 
only  so,  but  his  whole  argument  would  become  incoherent 
unless  he  regarded  him  as  being  a  man  in  quite  as  strict  a 
sense  as  Adam. 

The  many  were  made  sinners,  Shall  the  many  be  made 
righteous  (v.,  19). — I  see  no  reason  for  tmderstanding  these 
words  of  mere  imputation,  apart  from  reality.  In  relation  to 
the  effect  of  Adam's  transgression  Paul  says  expressly  "  all 
sinned,"  though  they  did  not  all,  like  him,  violate  an  express 
commandment.  And  so  men  are  not  to  be  put  off"  with  a 
mere  illusory  righteousness.  Every  act  of  disobedience 
lowers,  every  act  of  righteous  self-sacrifice  heightens  the 
spiritual  vitality  of  mankind  ;  and  this  universal  law  receives 
its  grand  exemplifications  in  Adam  and  in  Christ,  with 
whom,  in  a  special  sense,  the  race  are  organically  united.' 

That  the  trespass  might  abound  (v.,  20). — Law  came  in  for 
a  temporary  purpose.     Its  immediate  effect  was  to  turn  into 

'  A  Midrash  puts  the  case  thus  :  The  world  is  half  guiUy,  half  pure. 
If  one  man  commits  transgressions,  so  as  to  give  transgressions  the 
preponderance,  the  world  becomes  through  him  guilty.  If  one  fulfils 
&  commandment,  and  so  gives  the  preponderance  to  good  actions,  he 


296  ROMANS  vi.,  2. 

transgression  the  instinctive  movements  of  sinful  impulse, 
and  so  create  that  consciousness  of  sin  which  must  precede 
redemption  from  its  power.  This  thought  is  elaborated  at  a 
later  stage  of  the  argument. 

Having  completed  the  first  portion  of  his  argument,  Paul  now 
proceeds  to  unfold  the  moral  and  spiritual  results  of  the  Christian 
position  (vi.-viii.). 

First,  he  finds  it  necessary  to  set  aside  certain  dangerous 
inferences  (vi.,  I-vii.,  25),  of  which  the  most  serious  was  the 
notion  that  we  might  continue  in  sin,  reh'ing  upon  the  super- 
abundant love  of  God  to  save  us  at  last.  His  doctrine  of 
faith,  as  indeed  every  doctrine  which  insists  that  the  entire 
moral  value  of  actions  is  dependent  on  the  inward  sources 
from  which  they  spring,  was  liable  to  be  misunderstood  by 
less  spiritual  minds,  and  might  even  be  abused  by  the  vicious 
into  a  justification  of  their  offences.  We  know  from  i  Cor. 
how  Paul  had  to  urge  upon  the  attention  of  some  of  the 
Gentile  converts  what  seem  to  us  quite  elementary  lessons 
of  moral  decenc)^  ;  and  there  may  have  been  some  ground 
for  apprehending  similar  abuses  in  Rome.  The  argument  is 
so  mixed  with  exhortation  that  it  is  rather  a  warning  to  the 
readers  than  a  reply  to  opponents,  though  of  course  it  ob- 
viates at  the  same  time  an  objection  which  might  have  been 
brought  against  the  Pauline  doctrine  by  those  who  viewed 
it  only  from  the  outside. 

The  question  is,  Shall  we  continue  in  sin  ?  The  first  answer  is 
that  that  is  impossible,  because  in  Christ  we  have  died  to  the  old 
life,  and  risen  into  a  new  one  (vi.,  1-14). 

We  who  died  to  sin  (vi.,  2). — This  contains  the  central 
thought  of  the  passage,  which  is  expanded  in  the  following 

makes  the  world  thereby  righteous  (Weher, /ud.  T/ieol.,-p.  283).  The 
fathers  of  Israel,  however,  were  able  to  leave  to  their  children  a  share 
of  their  own  reward,  and  by  their  merit  to  make  good  the  deficiencies 
of  their  descendants  {ib.,  pp.  292  sq.). 


vi.,  6,  7.  ROMANS  297 

verses.  The  very  meaning  of  the  Christian's  faith  was  that 
he  had  escaped  from  the  old  propensities  to  sin  as  completely 
as  if  he  had  died,  so  that  the  life  of  faith  and  the  life  of  sin 
were  absolutely  incompatible.  This  dying  to  sin  reminds 
Paul  of  baptism,  the  solemn  act  by  which  the  renunciation 
of  the  old  life  was  sealed.  We  must  remember  that  at  that 
time  baptism  was  administered  to  adult  converts,  and  there- 
fore it  had  a  very  practical  significance.  It  formally  com- 
mitted men  to  their  Christian  profession  ;  it  was  a  final 
breaking  up  of  the  past  heathen  life,  and  an  acceptance  of 
the  Christ-life.  The  form,  then,  in  which  it  was  adminis- 
tered, by  immersion,  not  unnaturally  suggested  a  comparison 
with  the  death,  and  burial,  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  with 
whose  spirit  of  self-denying  righteousness  and  love  every 
true  believer  was  imbued.  Therefore,  as  Christ  left  behind 
him  this  sinful  world  when  he  suffered  on  the  cross,  and 
through  death  entered  on  the  glorified  life,  so  the  soul,  rising 
in  faith  into  a  new  empire  of  the  Spirit,  had  passed  forever 
from  the  domain  of  sin.  We  see  very  clearly  from  this 
passage  how  completely  faith  was  an  inward  principle  of  life, 
in  contrast  with  everything  external,  whether  in  the  domain 
of  action  or  of  intellect ;  it  was  an  incorporation  of  Christ's 
life  of  devoted  faith,  an  indwelling  of  his  Spirit,  and  without 
this  a  man  was  not  a  genuine  member  of  the  Christian 
brotherhood. 

The  body  of  sin  (vi.,  6)  means  most  probably  the  body 
which  belongs  to  or  serves  sin,  the  body  with  its  passions 
being  the  medium  through  which  sin  works.  This  body  is 
"  done  away  "  or  rather  "  rendered  powerless,"  being,  in  a 
figure,  crucified  with  Christ,  the  believer  sharing  the  great 
act  of  renunciation. 

He  that  hath  died  is  justified  from  sin  (vi.,  7),  a  legal  prin- 
ciple, that  one  who  is  dead  is  ipso  facto  no  longer  amenable 
to  the  law  ;  and  so  sin  can  no  longer  lay  claim  to  one  who 
has  died  to  all  his  evil  past. 


298  ROMANS  vi.,  8-10. 

We  shall  also  live  with  him  (vi.,  8). — Having  dwelt  on  the 
death  to  sin,  he  now  proceeds  to  notice  more  particular!}'  the 
nature  of  the  new  life,  as  a  living  to  God. 

The  death  that  he  died  he  died  2into  sin  once  (vi.,  lo). — The 
words  in  regard  to  Christ's  dying  to  sin  are  strictly  parallel 
with  the  expression  used  in  verses  2  and  1 1  of  believers  gen- 
erally. Yet  the  ideas  which  have  grown  up  around  the  per- 
son of  Christ  oblige  the  commentators  to  assign  them  very 
different  meanings  in  the  two  cases  ;  and  instead  of  referring 
them,  in  connection  with  Christ,  to  any  spiritual  conquest, 
they  explain  them  simply  of  his  passing  from  a  world  in 
which  he  came  in  contact  with  sin.  But  I  think  the  con- 
trast, dying  to  sin,  living  to  God,  will  hardly  bear  this  inter- 
pretation, to  say  nothing  of  the  utter  inapplicabilit}'  of 
Christ's  case  to  ourselves  which  is  thus  introduced.  Yet 
the  Apostle  believed  that  Christ  "  knew  no  sin  "  (2  Cor.  v., 
21),  and  cannot  have  supposed  that  he  had  ever  lived  in  sub- 
jection to  sin,  from  which  he  was  released  only  by  death. 
But  he  may  have  believed  that  "  the  man  Jesus  Christ  "  had 
real  spiritual  struggles,  that  he  had  painfully  to  repress  the 
claims  of  self,  of  the  wearied  body  and  the  anxious  brain, 
.that  his  exalted  life  required  a  voluntary  conquest  of  oppos- 
ing forces,  and  a  clinging  in  faith  to  God,  that  it  was  in 
short  a  continual  losing  of  the  lower  life  in  order  to  find  the 
higher ;  and  the  death  on  the  cross,  which  was  the  final  and 
complete  abnegation  of  self,  was  also  a  dying  once  and  for- 
ever to  sin,  and  entering  upon  that  life  where  sin  has  no 
more  power.  We  die  to  sin  whenever  we  decide  against  a 
wrong  course  which  lies  temptingly  open  to  us  ;  and  in  this 
sense  we  may,  with  the  Apostle,  "  die  daily."  Understand- 
ing the  words  thus  we  attach,  if  not  the  same,  at  least  an 
analogous  meaning  to  them  in  both  their  references,  and  find 
the  light  of  Christ's  experience  shed  into  our  own  souls. 
We  may  with  Christ  die  to  sin,  but  we  can  do  30  only 
through  Christ's  faith. 


vi.,  II-19.  ROMANS  299 

In  Christ  Jesus  (vi.,  II). — Paul's  expressive  phrase  for 
being  a  Christian.  Farther  on,  he  says  "  Christ  is  in  you  " 
(viii.,  10).  The  two  expressions  denote  an  intimate  union 
and  identity  of  Hfe,  and  this  life  is  forever  irreconcilable 
with  sin. 

Paul  now  introduces  an  exhortation  (vi.,  12,  13),  show- 
ing, as  often  elsewhere,  that  while  he  insists  on  the  Divine 
conditions  he  never  forgets  the  human  condition  of  fidelity. 
The  inward  life  may  be  changed  ;  but  it  still  requires  all  our 
vigilance  to  be  faithful  to  the  new  principle.  The  reasoning 
may  be  thus  exhibited  :  faith  can  be  no  encouragement  to 
sin,  for  its  essential  spirit  is  a  dying  to  sin  and  living  to  God  ; 
see,  then,  that  you  carry  this  out  in  action,  and  remember 
that  you  caii  do  so,  that  sin  is  no  longer  your  master,  because 
you  are  not  under  law,  but  under  grace.  The  meaning  of 
this  last  statement  is  found  in  the  following  chapters. 

The  mention  of  grace  suggests  a  repetition  of  the  question 
Shall  we  sin  ?  (vi.,  15)  ;  but  the  point  of  view  is  changed,  and 
a  more  subtle  danger  is  exposed.  It  is  no  longer  suggested 
that  we  may  indulge  in  sin,  trusting  in  God's  love  to  over- 
look it,  but  that  if  the  dominion  of  sin  is  broken,  and  we  are 
no  longer  judged  by  the  formal  rules  of  the  law,  we  may  allow 
ourselves  to  remain  in  sin,  and  yet  retain  our  mastery  over  it. 
The  answer  is  that  you  cannot  voluntarily  place  j'ourself  in 
subjection  to  any  power,  and  then  leave  its  service  whenever 
you  please  ;  if  you  make  3'ourselves  slaves,  slaves  you  are, 
and  must  take  the  consequences  ;  and  this  is  true  both  of  the 
sin  which  ends  in  death  and  of  the  obedience  which  ends  in 
righteousness. 

I  speak  after  the  manner  of  men  because  of  the  iyifirmity  of 
your  flesh  (vi.,  19). — This  is  an  apology  for  using  such  an 
expression  as  "Ye  became  servants  [or  rather,  slaves]  of 
righteousness."  The  words  seem  to  imply  a  doubt  whether 
the  readers  were  sufficiently  advanced  spiritually  to  see  that 
in  following  righteousness  there  was  no  slavery.     Seen  from 


300 


ROMANS  vi.,  23-vii.,  I. 


the  opposite  sides  each  life  is  a  Hfe  of  slavety  ;  but  he  who 
has  found  his  Hfe  in  God,  and  relinquished  the  claims  of  self, 
is  not  a  slave^  but  a  son  (see  Gal.  iv.,  7). 

The  wages  of  sin  (vi.,  23),  that  is,  the  wages  paid  by  sin 
to  its  servant,  sin  being  personified. 

In  Christ  Jesus  (vi.,  23). — This  has  not  exactl}'  the  same 
meaning  as  "  through  Christ  Jesus,"  the  latter  more  clearly- 
implying  agency  on  the  part  of  Christ.  We  may  perhaps 
best  understand  the  words  by  asking.  What  did  God  give  to 
the  world  in  Christ  ?  The  answer  is  "  eternal  life,"  the  life 
which  was  with  the  Father  and  was  manifested  to  us.  Paul 
felt  with  clearer  consciousness  than  is  always  felt  now  that  it 
was  in  Christ  that  he  had  received  this  gift. 

Paul,  reverting  to  the  thought  of  vi.,  14,  advances  a  third  argu- 
ment to  show  that  the  Christian  state  cannot  be  one  of  sin :  you 
died  to  the  law  in  order  that  you  might  be  united  to  Christ,  and 
bring  forth  fruit  unto  God  (vii.,  1-6). 

In  entering  on  the  life  of  the  spirit  we  leave  behind  us  that 
lower  and  carnal  life,  where  sin  has  its  seat,  and  which  the 
law  at  once  prohibits  and  excites.  The  latter  thought  is 
worked  out  in  the  second  portion  of  the  chapter. 

The  law  (vii.,  l). — As  there  is  no  article  in  the  Greek,  the 
I^aw  of  Moses  need  not  be  specially  referred  to  :  the  principle 
belongs  to  law  as  such.  But  we  can  hardly  doubt  that 
Gentile  as  well  as  Jewish  Christians  were  acquainted  with 
the  Old  Testament,  which  at  that  time  was  the  only  Christian 
Bible,  and  which  has  always  continued  to  be  part  of  the 
Christian  canon. 

The  illustration  drawn  from  marriage  is  rather  confused  ; 
for  the  principle  was  that  law  has  authorit}'  over  a  man  only 
as  long  as  he  lives  ;  the  example  shows  that  law  has  author- 
ity over  a  person  only  so  long  as  someone  else  lives.  In  the 
fourth  verse  the  original  principle  is  resumed,  but  blended 
with  the  idea  of  marriage  drawn  from  the  illustration,  so  that 


vii.,  4-6.  ROMANS  301 

the  law  seems  to  take  the  place  of  the  dead  husband.  The 
general  thought,  however,  is  sufficiently  clear  :  death  dis- 
solves legal  obligations ;  but  you  are  dead  to  the  law,  and 
therefore  your  obligations  towards  it  are  at  an  end. 

Through  [or  by  means  of'\  the  body  of  Christ  (vii.,  4). — 
This  expression,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  previous  reason- 
ing, must  refer  to  Christ's  death,  in  which  the  disciple 
spiritually  shares.  The  body  may  have  been  selected  as  the 
mortal  part,  or,  as  Jowett  suggests,  ' '  to  express  the  necessary 
idea  of  a  communion  of  many  members  in  one  body."  It 
was  only  through  connection  with  the  community  of  believers, 
who  formed  figuratively  the  body  of  Christ,  that  a  man  could 
have  the  fulness  of  Chri.stian  experience. 

When  we  were  in  the  flesh  (vii.,  5),  when  our  lower  and 
animal  nature  was  the  principle  of  our  life,  contrasted  with 
being  "  in  the  spirit." 

Which  were  through  the  law  (vii.,  5). — These  words  antici- 
pate the  next  section,  and  are  explained  in  verses  9-1 1. 

hi  newness  of  the  spirit,  and  not  in  o/d?iess  of  the  letter 
(vii.,  6). — The  letter  and  the  spirit  are  contrasted,  as  in  2" 
Cor.  iii.,  6,  "The  letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit  giveth  life," 
where  Paul  refers  to  the  deadening  effect  upon  the  higher 
powers  of  servile  adhesion  to  an  authoritative  document ; 
here  he  traces  the  consequences  of  this  deadening  down  into 
the  moral  life.  When  he  wrote  these  words  there  was  no 
New  Testament,  and  he  was  not  substituting  a  new  "  letter  " 
for  the  old,  but  committing  men  to  their  own  faith,  to  be 
taught  by  the  Spirit  of  God  in  their  hearts.  In  the  light 
of  a  profound  spiritual  experience  he  cleared  himself  at 
once  from  that  bibliolatry,  that  bondage  to  the  letter,  from 
which  in  our  age  men  are  reluctantly  dragging  themselves 
by  the  slow  efforts  of  a  laborious  criticism. 

Paul  next  proceeds  to  unfold  the  nature  and  action  of  Law  (vii., 
7-25). 

The  foregoing  discussion  might  easily  give  rise  to  an  erro- 


302  ROMANS  vii.,  7. 

neous  view  of  the  Law,  and  lead  men  to  identify  it  with  the 
principle  of  evil ;  for  Paul  seemed  to  be  treating  subjection 
to  sin  and  subjection  to  the  Law  as  sjaionymous.  This  was 
far  from  his  intention.  The  two  conditions  were  not  identi- 
cal, but  simultaneous  ;  and  they  must  always  remain  so  ;  for 
the  moment  a  man  ceases  to  be  spiritual,  and  falls  under  sin, 
he  is  confronted  by  the  Law  which  is  Divine  and  spiritual., 
It  is  impossible  to  escape  from  it  by  sinking  below  it ;  deliver- 
ance comes  only  when  we  are  drawn  up  into  the  sphere  of 
the  Spirit,  from  whose  intrinsic  life  the  moral  law  has  em- 
anated. The  honest  man  is  independent  of  the  command- 
ment, ' '  Thou  shalt  not  steal ' '  ;  but  the  moment  he  becomes 
dishonest  it  resumes  its  sway,  and  so  by  falling  under  sin  he 
falls  under  the  Law.  Paul,  however,  is  more  concerned  at 
present  with  the  thesis  that  the  austere  purity  of  the  Law, 
coming  with  the  check  of  a  merely  external  command, 
aggravated  the  sin  which  it  was  meant  to  curb,  so  that 
escape  from  the  Law  into  the  life  of  Spirit  was  at  the  same 
time  an  escape  from  the  dominion  of  sin. 

Howbeit  (vii.,  7). — The  Greek  means  "  but,"  and  expresses 
the  opposition  between  Paul's  view  and  the  view  implied  in 
the  question, — this  is  not  my  view,  but . 

I  had  not  known  sin  except  through  the  law  (vii.,  7). — The 
emphatic  "  I  "  in  verse  9  (for  in  the  Greek  it  is  emphatic) 
proves,  I  think,  that  Paul  is  speaking  in  his  own  person 
throughout  this  passage  ;  but  it  is  also  clear  from  the  whole 
drift  of  the  argument  that  his  object  is  not  to  convey  in- 
formation about  himself,  but  to  use  his  own  experience  for 
the  establishment  of  general  principles,  so  that  the  intense 
glow  of  his  inward  strife  sheds  a  revealing  light  into  the  dim 
interior  of  ordinary  men. 

The  first  point  is  that  Law  brings  the  knowledge  of  sin. 
This  has  been  already  announced  in  iii.,  20;  and  we  have 
also  been  told  that  sin  was  in  the  world  even  when  there  was 
no  law,  and  when,  therefore,  it  could  not  be  imputed  (v.,  13). 


vii.,  8-12.  ROMANS  303 

We  now  see  the  meaning  of  these  statements.  Covetous- 
ness,  considered  in  itself,  has  the  nature  of  sin  ;  nevertheless 
before  the  conscience  wakens  we  innocently  covet  whatever 
naturally  excites  our  desire,  and  it  is  only  when  the  Law 
conies  that  we  recognise  our  selfish  desires  as  covetousness, 
and  know  that  they  ought  to  be  repressed.  In  its  absolute 
sense  this  condition  belongs  only  to  infancy  ;  but  many  men 
can  distinctly'  remember  the  time  when  the  light  of  Divine 
Law  first  awoke  the  sense  of  sin,  and  made  them  conscious 
of  the  wild  and  disordered  state  within  them.  According  to 
Jewish  teaching,  a  child,  innocent  up  to  the  tenth  year,  con- 
tracts from  that  time  "  the  evil  impulse."  ' 

Sin,  finding  occasion  (vii.,  8). — The  awakening,  just  men- 
tioned, is  always  a  critical  period,  and  giv-es  sin  its  opportun- 
\\.y.  It  is  a  time  when  hitherto  innocent  pursuits  may 
contract  the  taint  of  guilt,  and  yet  be  too  deeply  rooted  in 
the  habits  to  be  abandoned  in  obedience  to  a  law  which 
inflames  their  rebellious  selfishness.  "  Apart  from  law  sin 
is  dead."  There  is  no  depraving  sin  in  the  cruelty  of  the 
tiger ;  but  a  man  who,  knowing  the  Law,  yields  to  the 
temper  of  a  tiger  becomes  corrupt  and  an  enemy  of  God. 

I  was  alive  apart  from  the  law  once  (vii.,  9). — Paul  now 
enters  more  distinctly  into  a  statement  of  personal  experi- 
ence. The  meaning  of  this  and  the  following  verse  has  been 
explained  in  the  remarks  already  made. 

Beguiled  [or  deceived^  7nc  (vii.,  II). — Sin  may  deceive  one 
in  man)'  ways.  It  may  suggest  that  the  Law  is  too  ethereal 
to  be  observed  by  frail  mortals,  or -that  it  is  more  manly 
to  take  one's  own  course,  or  that  at  all  events  it  will  be  time 
enough  to  obey  when  the  keen  blood  of  youth  is  .sobering 
into  age.  Paul  may'possibly  have  thought  of  the  furj'  of  his 
mistaken  zeal ;  for  to  reach  powerful  minds  sin  must  clothe 
itself  in  a  garb  of  virtue. 

The  law  is  holy  (vii.,  12). — This  states  the  conclusion 
'  Weher./ud.  T/wol.,  p.  213. 


304  ROMANS  vii.,  13-16. 

from  the  preceding  exposition,  and  is  the  complete  answer  to 
the  qnestion,  "  Is  the  law  sin  ?  " 

Did  then  that  which  is  good  become  death  iinto  me  f  (vii., 
13). — The  difficulty  recurs  in  another  form.  Grant  that  the 
Law  is  not  sin,  yet  it  seems  equivalent  to  death.  The 
answer  is  that  it  is  sin  alone  which  is  the  source  of  death, 
and  it  was  allowed  to  work  through  the  holy  I^aw  in  order 
that  its  heinous  character  might  become  perfectly  clear. 

/  am  carnal,  sold  tender  sin  (vii.,  14). — Sin  finds  its  seat, 
not  in  the  Law,  which  expresses  the  order  of  the  spiritual 
realm,  but  in  the  carnal  or  animal  nature  of  man,  which  is 
not  legislative,  but  the  subject  of  legislation.'  The  question 
is  raised  whether  Paul  refers  to  the  time  before  or  after  his 
conversion.  "  Sold  under  sin  "  seems  quite  inapplicable  to 
one  who  was  "  redeemed."  The  inward  strife  is  inconsistent 
with  the  "peace  "  which  belongs  to  a  believer.  And  fur- 
ther, a  great  revulsion  of  feeling  takes  place  between  chapters 
vii.  and  viii.  But  how,  then,  are  we  to  explain  the  present 
tense,  which  continues  to  be  used  throughout  the  passage  ? 
The  parallelism  with  "  the  law  is"  almost  necessitates  "  I 
am,"  as  Paul  is  now  stating  a  general  principle  without  re- 
ference to  particular  times.  The  present,  being  once  intro- 
duced, is  naturall}^  continued,  and  is  particularly  appropriate 
since  the  strength  of  feeling  may  have  made  the  old  conflict 
live  again  like  a  present  fact.  We  must  remember,  too,  that 
the  description  is  not  intended  to  be  merely  personal  and 
historical,  but  to  be  typical  of  a  wide  experience. 

/consent  luifo  the  laiv  that  it  is  good  (vii.,  16). — The  fact  that 
the  will  accepts  the  commands  of  the  Law  is  a  proof  that  we 
admit  its  excellence. 

'  Tlie  more  approved  reading,  odftmvoi,  instead  of  dtipxind?,  does 
not  properly  denote  "  carnal  "  in  the  moral  sense,  but  "  composed  of 
flesh."  If  this  distinction  is  strictly  observed,  the  meaning  nmst  be, 
"  I  am  composed  of  flesh,  and  therefore  under  the  dominion  of  sin," 
which  wcrks  through  the  lower,  material  uaturt-. 


vii.,  17-25.  ROMANS  305 

//  is  710  more  I  that  do  if,  but  sifi  which  dwelleth  in  me  (vii., 
17). — Doing  wrong  through  the  violence  of  desire,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  bent  of  tlie  will,  seems  due  to  the  prompting  of  a 
foreign  power  within  us.  Independently  of  deliberate  trans- 
gression there  is  an  obliquity  of  nature,  a  vehemence  of  the 
lower  and  a  weakness  of  the  higher  elements,  which  consti- 
tute the  incentives  to  transgression  ;  and  which  Paul  calls  by 
the  name  of  sin. 

In  VIC,  that  is,  in  my  flesh  (vii.,  18). — Instead  of  represent- 
ing human  nature  as  corrupt  in  every  part,  Paul  recognises 
here  and  in  verse  22  a  higher  and  a  lower  nature.  The  lat- 
ter is  not  the  scat  of  good,  but  acts  as  a  check  upon  the 
aspirations  of  the  former.  Hence  we  find  a  law,  or  rule, 
that  when  we  wish  to  do  good  evil  is  present  (vii.,  2l). 
Moral  choice  presupposes  a  lower  in  conflict  with  the  higher, 
and  the  lower  is  apt  to  gain  the  victory  when  there  is  nothing 
but  strength  of  will  to  oppose  it.  The  misery  of  the  inward 
struggle  reaches  its  height  when  the  mind  is  full  of  admir- 
ation for  righteousness  (vii.,  22),  but  passions  wild  and 
strong,  which  sometimes  beset  the  noblest  minds,  drag  us 
captive  to  the  law  of  sin  (vii.,  23).  The  anguish  of  this 
division  in  our  nature,  and  the  feeling  of  helplessness  and 
self-contempt  which  it  brings,  extort  the  cry  for  a  deliverer 
(vii.,  24)  ;  and  the  emotion  which  produced  this  high- 
wrought  description  subsides,  as  it  were,  with  a  sigh  of 
thanksgiving,  for  the  deliverer  has  come  (vii.,  25). 

The  body  of  this  death  (vii.,  24),  that  is,  probably,  the  body 
which  is  subject  to  this  death,  the  spiritual  deadness  just 
described,  to  which  physical  death  owes  its  terrors.  The 
Greek  may  also  be  translated,  "  this  body  of  death,"  i.  e., 
which  is  subject  to  death.     Compare  viii.,  11. 

I  thank  God  (vii,,  25). — God,  then,  is  the  source  of  deliv- 
erance, to  whom  our  gratitude  is  due.  It  is  noticeable  that 
in  the  preceding  passage  the  religious  element  does  not  ap- 
pear.    There  is  no  mention  of  faith,  love,  the  communion 


3o6  ROMANS  vii.,  25. 

of  sons,  Divine  strength  made  perfect  amid  conscious  weak- 
ness. The  impersonal  I^aw  has  no  sympathy,  abates  no 
claim,  and  imparts  no  strength.  But  He  who  gave  the  L,aw 
may  be  a  strong  Deliverer,  and  through  Christ  we  will  give 
thanks  to  Him,  for  His  love  has  entered  our  hearts,  and  a 
heavenly  peace  reigns  within. 

/  myself  with  the  mind  serve  the  law  of  God,  but  with  the 
flesh  the  lazv  of  sin  (vii.,  25).  — These  words  calmly  sum  up 
the  previous  description.  The  present  tense  is  retained  as  it 
has  been  used  throughout.  The  expression  "  I  myself"  is 
not  easily  understood  ;  but  we  may  perhaps  explain  it  from 
Paul's  state  of  mind  in  dictating  the  passage.  He  was  pre- 
senting a  picture  of  the  highest  results  of  the  legal  position, 
even  in  one  who  had  lived  in  all  good  conscience.  May  he 
not  have  remembered  the  proud  self-righteousness  of  the 
young  Pharisee,  who  breathed  out  threatenings  and  slaughter 
against  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  was  rapidl}'^  rising  to  a 
position  of  eminence  through  his  zeal  for  the  I^aw  ?  Is  it  not 
possible  that  the  thought  of  this,  seen  now  in  the  light  of 
more  recent  self-knowledge,  may  have  made  him  utter  the 
words  "  I  myself"  ?  I  myself,  so  vain  of  my  training  in 
the  Law,  I,  so  noted  for  severity  of  conduct,  I,  a  Hebrew 
of  the  Hebrews,  brought  up  in  the  strictest  sect,  am  after  all 
miserable,  torn  by  inward  strife  ;  and  in  spite  of  the  ad- 
hesion of  my  mind  to  the  Law  of  God,  the  flesh  drags  me 
into  subjection  to  the  law  of  sin. 

Paul  now  proceeds  to  unfold  the  positive  spiritual  results  of  the 
ne-w  principle  of  faith  (viii.). 

The  rich  and  numerous  suggestions  of  this  chapter  hardly 
admit  of  very  precise  divisions.  It  is  an  outpouring  of  high 
and  glowing  thoughts,  celebrating  the  power,  the  glory,  and 
the  triumph  of  the  Gospel.  In  the  earlier  part  the  present 
spiritual  facts  are  most  dwelt  upon,  and  afterwards  the  eye  is 
more  directed  towards  the  future,  the  sympathetic  interaction 


viii.,  1-3.  ROMANS  3°? 

of  the  lower  and  tlie  higher  creations,  and  the  purpose  of 
Divine  love  ruling  over  all.  The  chapter,  which  concludes 
the  first  part  of  the  Kpistle,  closes  with  the  assurance  of  faith 
that  God's  purpose  must  prevail,  and  that  nothing  can 
"  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus 
our  Lord." 

There  is  therefore  now  no  condemyiation  (viii.,  I). — From  all 
that  had  been  said  this  primary  fact  in  the  Christian's  faith 
followed — there  was  no  condenniation.  The  disciple  had  left 
behind  him  his  guilty  past,  and  with  a  subduing  sense  of 
Divine  forgiveness  and  love  made  a  new  start,  no  longer 
struggling  hopelessly  towards  the  perfection  of  an  outward 
standard,  but  living  out  of  the  resources  of  the  implanted 
spirit  of  holiness  within. 

The  law  of  the  spirit  of  life  in  Christ  fesus  (viii,,  2). — 
Thus,  and  not  by  the  usual  word  "  faith,"  is  the  new  princi- 
ple described  ;  but  if  we  have  been  right  so  far,  the  two 
expressions  are  practically  synonymous.  The  change  is 
probabl)'  made  because  Paul  is  still  guarding  his  doctrine 
against  Antinomianism.  The  new  life  has  a  law  of  its  own, 
and,  though  it  may  be  long  in  working  out  its  perfect  results, 
it  at  once  litts  a  man  above  that  lower  law  in  the  animal 
nature  (described  in  vii.,  23)  which  has  hitherto  kept  his 
will  in  captivity. 

What  the  law  could  not  do  (viii.,  3). — The  construction  is 
imperfect,  but  the  meaning  is  clear, — what  the  law  could  not 
do  was  accomplished  in  another  wa}-. 

//  was  weak  through  the  flesh  (v^ii.,  3). — Being  simply  an 
outward  rule,  enforced  by  outward  sanctions,  it  did  not  at- 
tempt to  produce  any  radical  change  of  character,  but  left 
the  fleshly  passions  in  their  full  force.  This  is  the  radical 
defect  of  all  systems  which  seek  to  control  human  conduct 
solely  by  tlie  principle  of  self-interest. 

God  sending  his  own  Son  (viii.,  3). — As  Paul  is  our  earli- 
est   witness,    we   must   interpret   these    and   similar   words 


3o8  ROMANS  viii.,  3. 

through  himself,  and  not  through  the  doctrine  and  phrase- 
ology of  a  much  later  time.  In  the  Epistles  ascribed  to  Paul 
Jesus  is  spoken  of  as  the  Son  of  God  seventeen  times,  of 
which  eleven  are  in  Romans  and  Galatians.'  Eight  times 
the  term  "  son  "  is  applied  to  others."  Five  times  the  ex- 
pression "  children  of  God  "  is  applied  to  others.^  Our  space 
does  not  allow  us  to  examine  these  passages  here  ;  but  the 
following  appear  to  me  to  be  legitimate  results  :  (i)  The 
Son  is  always  distinguished  from  God,  and  is  identified  with 
Jesus,  the  historical  man.  (2)  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  in 
a  spiritual,  in  contradistinction  from  an  official  or  metaphys- 
ical sense,  by  possession  of  the  Spirit  of  holiness,  and  not  by 
the  mode  of  his  generation  in  time  or  eternit5^  Whatever 
may  have  been  Paul's  view  of  the  pre-existence  of  Christ  (or 
of  all  souls),  he  nowhere  connects  sonship  with  ideas  of  that 
kind.  (3)  Christ's  sonship  was  the  same,  in  essence,  as  that 
which  belongs  to  other  men  ;  to  all  potentially  ;  to  those 
who  are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  its  full  sense.  (4) 
Nevertheless  to  Jesus  is  assigned  a  marked  pre-eminence,  as 
the  predicted  Messiah,  the  one  who  historically,  in  God's 
providence,  wakened  the  human  soul  to  the  realisation  of 
.  this  relationship,  and  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  pur- 
pose was  endowed  with  the  spirit  of  Sonship  from  the  first 
in  unique  fulness.  Hence  he  is  "  the  Son,"  God's  own  Son, 
the  Son  of  His  love.  Paul  may  have  had  a  metaphysical 
explanation  of  these  things,  and  have  derived  all  souls  from 
the  very  substance  of  God,  but  he  never  enters  into  these 
philosophical   speculations.     Everywhere   the   religious  in- 

'  Rom,  i.,  3,  4,  9,  v.,  10,  viii.,  3,  29,  32  ;  i  Cor.  i.,  9,  xv.,  28  ;  2  Cor. 
i.,  19;  Gal.  i.,  16,  ii.,  20,  iv.,  4,  6  ;  Epli.  iv.,  13  ;  Col.  i.,  13  ;  i  Tbess. 
i.,  10. 

^  Rom.  viii.,  14,  19,  ix.,  26;  2  Cor.  vi.,  18;  Gal.  iii.,  26,  iv.,  6,  7 
(twice).  Two  of  these  are  in  quotations,  which  are  applied  in  a 
Pauline  sense. 

^  Rom.  viii.,  16,  17,  21,  ix.,  8  ;  Philip,  ii.,  15. 


viii.,  3.  ROMANS  309 

terest  is  dominant.  He  is  content  with  the  reality  of  filial 
communion  between  man  and  God  which  he  had  found  in 
Christ ;  but  he  will  have  nothing  less  than  this,  and  will  not 
be  put  off  with  a  legal  or  dogmatic  substitute  which  might 
separate  him  from  the  love  of  God. 

In  the  likeness  of  sinftd  flesh  (viii.,  3),  literally,  "  flesh  of 
sin,"  which  need  not  imply  that  the  flesh  is  intrinsically 
sinful,  but  that  it  is  the  element  in  us  through  which  sin 
works.  These  words  imply  a  distinction  between  the  perman- 
ent spiritual  personality  and  the  flesh  which  was  its  earthly 
organ.  The  same  distinction  is  recognised  in  the  case  of 
men  generally, — "  We  that  are  in  this  tabernacle  do  groan, 
being  burdened"  (see  2  Cor.  v.,  i  sq?).  The  flesh  is  men- 
tioned in  order  to  show  that  sin  was  defeated  in  its  own 
stronghold  ;  and  to  bring  out  this  latter  idea  it  is  called 
"the  flesh  of  sin."  But  to  have  said  that  Christ  came  in 
the  flesh  of  sin  might  seem  to  imply  his  sinfulness  ;  and  so 
the  longer  phrase  is  chosen,  implying  that  his  flesh  was  like 
ours,  except  that  it  never  belonged  to  sin. 

As  an  offering  for  sin  (viii.,  3). — The  Greek  is  simply  "in 
relation  to  sin,"  and  though  a  sacrifice  may  be  made  in  rela- 
tion to  sin,  the  words  do  not  contain  in  themselves  the  notion 
of  sacrifice,  and  there  is  nothing  whatever  in  the  context  to 
suggest  such  an  idea.  It  was  not  primarily  with  man  as 
ignorant,  but  with  man  as  sinful,  that  Christ's  mission  was 
concerned. 

Condemned  sin  in  the  flesh  (viii.,  3),  passed  sentence 
against  it  within  that  very  element  in  which  its  power 
seemed  to  reside.  God  also  condemned  sin  in  the  Law  ;  but 
this  condemnation  only  drives  the  thought  in  upon  the  pas- 
sions wdiicli  we  want  to  forget,  and  thus  gives  strength  to 
sin.  How  different  is  the  effect  if  someone  comes  with 
commanding  character,  whose  pure  spirituality  lifts  him  above 
all  polluting  thought.  Through  him  sin  is  condemned  in 
the  flesh,  and  in  his  strength  we  become  strong.     Of  this  he 


310  ROMANS  viii.,  4-10. 

was  the  typical  instance  whose  whole  mission  was  in  relation 
to  sin. 

That  the  ordinance  of  the  laiv  might  be  fulfilled  in  ns  (viii., 
4). — The  object  of  Christ's  mission  was  to  bring  abont  that 
obedience  to  the  righteous  requirements  of  the  Law  which 
the  L,aw  itself  was  powerless  to  secure.  This  and  the  fol- 
lowing verses  explain  how  this  end  is  secured.  It  is  by  a 
change  from  the  fleshly  to  the  spiritual  mind  ;  or,  to  revert  to 
the  language  previously  used,  it  is  only  when  the  righteous- 
ness of  God  dwells  within  that  we  can  fulfil  externally  the 
requirements  of  that  righteousness. 

The  Spirit  of  God,  The  Spirit  of  Christ  (viii.,  9),  Christ 
(viii.,  10). — These  expressions  are  used  here  as  equivalents  : 
how  is  this  ?  The  Spirit  of  God  comprises  those  attributes  of 
holiness,  justice,  love,  which  have  their  reality  and  source 
only  in  Him.  But  these  are  precisely  the  attributes  which 
shone  forth  from  Christ,  and  constituted  the  essence  of  his 
being  ;  and  therefore  in  speaking  of  the  relationship  of  men 
to  Christ  Paul  might  substitute  for  his  first  expression  "  the 
Spirit  of  Chri.st,"  or  simply  "  Christ."  This  spiritual  in- 
dwelling of  Christ  is  the  indispensable  mark  of  those  who 
are  his.  That  Paul  meant  spiritual  rather  than  what  we 
should  call  personal  indwelling  we  may  infer  from  his  state- 
ment that  "  while  we  are  at  home  in  the  body  we  are  absent 
from  the  Lord"  (2  Cor.  v.,  6).  Nevertheless  in  the  realm 
of  spirit  this  distinction  may,  perhaps,  be  unreal,  and  it  may 
be  relative  only  to  the  present  dinmess,  in  which  we  walk  by 
faith,  not  by  sight. 

The  body  is  dead  because  of  sin  (viii.,  lO). — Notwithstand- 
ing the  indwelling  of  Christ  the  body  remains  under  the 
power  of  that  death  which,  as  Paul  believed,  was  entailed 
upon  the  race  by  sin.  But  the  higher  spiritual  part  was  full 
of  life  on  account  of  that  righteousness  in  which  believers 
participated.  And  finally,  through  the  power  of  the  in- 
dwelling Spirit  of  God,  even  the  mortal  bodies  would  be 


viii.,  14-17.  ROMANS  3" 

quickened.  This  shows  that  the  body,  though,  as  we  learn 
from  I  Cor.  xv.,  it  was  to  be  totally  changed  in  its  qualities, 
was  nevertheless  expected  to  preserve  its  identity. 

With  verse  12  we  enter  on  practical  deductions  from  the 
foregoing-  principles.  There  are  two  ways,  which  lead  re- 
spectively to  life  and  death.  The  reference  cannot  be  to 
mere  physical  death,  as  that  affects  good  and  bad  alike,  but 
to  the  deadening  of  all  the  higher  powers  which  is  the  result 
of  the  carnal  mind.  Further,  the  new  principle  of  life  does 
not  supersede  the  efforts  of  the  will.  Deeds  lie  within  the 
domain  of  the  will,  and  we  must  mortify  the  doings  of  the 
body  if  we  would  have  true  life  ;  and  now  we  are  able  to  do 
so  through  the  power  of  the  Spirit.  For  (viii.,  14-17)  the 
sons  of  God  must  have  true  life  in  them,  and  all  who  are  led 
by  the  Spirit  of  God  are  His  sons.  We  have  here  a  clear 
definition  of  what  constitutes  sonship,  and  there  could  be  no 
broader  or  more  universal  rule  for  testing  our  spiritual  rela- 
tionship. Its  negative  aspect  is  given  in  verse  9.  This  great 
principle  has  been  treated  with  almost  invariable  contempt 
by  churches  and  sects.  Once,  however,  it  was  a  living  bond 
of  brotherhood,  and  it  might  be  assumed  that  the  Roman 
readers  came  under  it ;  for  when  they  accepted  the  Gospel 
they  had  received  the  Spirit  of  adoption.  The  Greek  word 
for  "adoption,"  here  and  in  Gal.  iv.,  5,  denotes,  I  think, 
the  recognition  of  men  as  sons,  a  reception  of  them  into  the 
full  privileges  of  sonship,  without  any  implication  that  they 
were  not  really  sons  ;  for  the  previous  verse  says  that  they 
are  sons,  not  that  they  are  counted  such.  There  is  a  two- 
fold witness  to  our  sonship.  Our  own  hearts  rise  up  to  seek 
a  Divine  original  ;  and  in  answer  to  this  yearning  there  is  a 
response,  or  even  prior  to  it  an  appeal,  which  is  not  ade- 
quately described  as  our  better  nature,  but  comes  with  the 
majesty  and  grace  of  something  that  is  higher  than  we. 
The  lower  experience  may  give  us  elevated  thought,  but  may 
also  minister  to  our  pride  ;  the  higher  alone  can  impart  an 


312  ROMANS  viii.,  19. 

uplifting  life,  and  temper  with  the  sense  of  dependence  and 
humility  our  conviction  of  human  greatness.  As  sons  we 
are  heirs  of  God.  We  have  here  a  good  illustration  of  the 
principle  insisted  on  in  another  connection,  that  a  metaphor 
must  not  be  pressed  beyond  its  immediate  application  ;  for 
God  does  not  die  and  leave  an  inheritance.  Observe  the 
clear  distinction  between  God  and  Christ,  and  the  way  in 
■which  the  latter  is  put  wholly  on  the  human  side  of  the 
relationship.  But  if  we  would  be  glorified  with  Christ,  and 
become  full  and  perfect  organs  of  the  Divine  Spirit  and  Will, 
we  must  be  ready  to  suffer  with  him.  The  cross  is  the  way 
of  hfe. 

The  mention  of  suffering  leads  the  Apostle  off  into  a  new 
train  of  thought  in  the  following  paragraphs  (viii.,  18-30). 
We  must  bear  our  sufferings  and  infirmities  here  patiently, 
for,  first,  the  future  glory  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  them 
{vv.  18-25) ;  secondly,  we  have  the  aid  of  the  Spirit 
{vv.  26,  27)  ;  thirdly,  everything  conspires  to  further  the 
good  of  those  who  love  God  (vv.  28-30).  Observe  the 
lofty  strain  of  thought  throughout.  Paul  believed  in  the 
return  of  the  Messiah ;  but  there  is  no  allusion  to  any 
compensation  in  kind  for  present  suffering  ;  the  ordinary 
messianic  pictures  are  totally  absent ;  and  he  stoops  to 
nothing  lower  than  the  liberty  of  the  children  of  God. 

Waitcth  for  the  revealing  of  the  Sons  of  God  (viii.,  19). — 
Creation  is  here  personified,  and  regarded  as  looking  forward 
to  an  ideal  end.  There  is  a  constant  stress  and  struggle, 
from  which  even  the  Christian,  with  the  first-fruits  of  the 
Spirit,  is  not  exempt.  We  are  sons,  and  have  received  the 
Spirit  of  adoption,  and  yet  we  must  wait  for  the  adoption, 
for  a  fuller  realisation  of  the  Divine  thought,  which  it  pleases 
God  to  work  out  slowly  from  the  original  vanity  of  the 
world.  Such  is  Paul's  conception  of  the  final  cause  of  crea- 
tion, so  that  the  Divine  sonship  which  is  just  breaking  in 
light  upon  the  world  goes  back  into  the  eternal  counsels  of 


viii.,  26.  ROMANS  ziz 

God,  and  that  which  is  last  in  the  order  of  nature  was  first 
in  the  creative  mind.  Throughout  this  passage  hope  is  re- 
presented as  the  instrument  of  progress,  and  it  is  even  said, 
"By  hope  were  we  saved,"  where  hope  takes  the  usual 
place  of  faith.  The  two  must  co-exist,  and  sustain  one  an- 
other ;  but  we  may  note  that  Paul  does  not  bind  himself  to 
his  own  language  with  the  strictness  of  a  dogmatist.  Ac- 
cording to  Jewish  conception  the  world  was  made  for  the 
sake  of  Israel,  and  the  fulfilment  of  the  law  was  its  goal. 
The  world-plan  proceeded  from  the  fathers  to  the  sanctuary 
and  the  people  devoted  to  the  law,  and  finally  to  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah.  Its  continuance  was  conditional  on  the 
obedience  of  Israel ;  but  God  foresaw  that  Israel  would 
accept  the  law.' 

The  Spirit  himself  maketh  intercession  for  us  (viii.,  26). — 
The  word  "  Spirit  "  in  Greek  is  neuter,  so  that  the  pronoun 
may  be  rendered  at  the  discretion  of  the  translator  either 
"  himself"  or  "  itself."  Intercession  is  undoubtedly  a  per- 
sonal act  :  but  considering  how  many  personifications  we 
have  already  met  with,  and  what  a  lofty  strain  the  language 
has  now  reached,  it  would  be  rash  to  assert  that  Paul  here 
expresses  his  belief  in  the  separate  personality  of  the  "  Holy 
Spirit."  If  he  did,  he  regarded  him  as  one  who  offered 
prayers  to  God,  in  accordance  with  the  Divine  will,  and 
therefore  as  distinct  from  God.  But  the  language  is  fairly 
applicable  to  those  inarticulate  aspirations  which  are  not  the 
self-raising,  but  the  Divine  uplifting  of  our  hearts.  The 
Holy  Spirit,  in  Paul's  view,  is,  I  conceive,  the  manifestation 
and  power  of  God  in  the  human  soul,  that  in  God  of  which 
we  become  immediately  conscious,  and  which  blends  with 
our  own  personality  to  an  extent  which  it  is  impossible  to 
define.  This  Spirit,  in  us,  but  not  of  us,  helps  our  natural 
infirmity.  Our  special  prayers  may  be  unwise  ;  but  there 
are  sighings  which  are  unutterable,  aspirations  which  we 
'  Weber, //h/.  ThcoL,  pp.  196  5^^. 


314  ROMANS  viii.,  28-32. 

cannot  throw  into  definite  petitions,  and  these  have  a  Divine 
source,  and  are  an  intercession  for  us,  bringing  down,  not 
what  in  our  ignorance  we  ask  for,  but  what  is  conformed  to 
the  will  of  God. 

Called  according  to  his  purpose  (viii.,  28). — Religious  love 
is  not  the  offspring  of  human  volition  ;  and  however  needful 
the  operation  of  our  own  will  may  be,  the  Apostle,  since  he 
is  here  dealing  with  the  providential  government  of  the 
world,  retreats  from  the  human  manifestation  of  piety  to 
the  Divine  purpose  which  prepared  and  worked  it.  "  Called  " 
does  not  necessarily  imply  "  chosen,"  but  Paul  uses  it  only 
of  those  who  respond  to  the  call. 

Foreknezu  (viii.,  29). — By  this  word  Paul  guards  himself 
against  being  supposed  to  deny  the  possibility  of  faithlessness 
in  the  human  will. 

Foreordained  to  be  conformed  to  the  image  of  his  Son  (viii., 
29). — We  cannot  choose  the  possibilities  of  our  own  nature. 
These  are  given  to  us,  and  their  end  can  be  reached  only  in 
fulfilment  of  our  destiny.  It  is  not  by  human  choice  that  we 
are  drawn  through  successive  grades  towards  the  perfection 
of  sonship.  Observe  that  the  Son,  Jesus  in  his  highest 
aspect,  is  here  classed  "among  many  brethren,"  of  whom 
he  is  the  first-born,  the  leader  of  the  new  spiritual  humanity. 
The  following  verse  touches  very  briefly  the  steps  b}^  which 
the  providential  purpose  is  fulfilled.  "  Glorified,"  the  past 
for  the  future,  indicates  the  certainty  of  the  result,  future 
glory  being  involved  in  present  justification. 

The  succeeding  paragraph  closes  the  whole  argument  in 
an  outburst  of  assured  and  triumphant  faith,  suggested  by 
the  words  just  used  (viii.,  31-39). 

Spared  not  his  own  Son  (viii.,  32). — See  verse  3.  "  Own  " 
is  a  mark  of  endearment,  needful  to  give  force  to  the  argu- 
ment,— if  God  so  earnestly  desired  to  bring  men  to  true 
holiness  that  He  gave  up  His  best  beloved  for  them,  He  will 
give  everything  else  which  is  necessary  to  make  them  per- 


viii.,  33-39-  ROMANS  3^5 

feet.  Some  think  that  to  talk  of  sparing  is  quite  out  of  place 
unless  Paul  looked  upon  Jesus  as  God  ;  but  with  Him  with- 
out whom  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground  it  may  be  other- 
wise, or  at  least  Paul  may  have  thought  so,  as  doui^tless  he 
remembered  that  "  precious  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  is  the 
death  of  His  saints,"  and  that  "  He  shall  spare  the  poor  and 
needy,  .  .  .  and  precious  shall  their  blood  be  in  His 
sight." 

The  structure  of  the  following  verses  (33-35)  is  rather 
uncertain.  Prol^ably  the  best  way  is  to  take  the  question  in 
verse  33  as  covering  the  whole  passage.  The  first  answer  is 
found  in  the  statement  and  question,  "  God  is  He  who  justi- 
fies ;  who  is  he  that  condemns  ?  "  A  more  remote  answer  is 
given  in  another  statement  and  question,  "  Christ  is  he  who 
died,     .    .     .     ;  who  shall  separate  us  from  his  love  ?  " 

Elect  (viii.,  l^t),  chosen  ones,  a  conception  to  be  fully  dealt 
with  in  the  succeeding  chapters. 

At  the  right  hand  of  God  (viii.,  34),  a  figurative  expres- 
sion, as  we  have  no  reason  for  attributing  anthropomorphism 
to  Paul.  It  may  refer  simply  to  the  exaltation  of  Christ  or 
it  may  include  his  instrumeutalit}'  in  the  administration  of 
the  world.  But  this  high  office  is  not  regarded  as  changing 
the  old  affection  :  he  still  loves  and  prays  for  man.' 

Principalities  (viii.,  38)  refers  to  a  certain  class  in  the 
angelic  hierarchy. 

The  love  of  God  which  is  in  Christ  fesus  our  Lord  (viii.,  39). 
— Paul  began  b)-  asking,  "  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the 
love  of  Christ  ?  "  He  may  here  change  the  form  of  expres- 
sion because  this  is  the  solemn  conclusion  of  the  great  argu- 
ment which  constitutes  the  first  part  of  the  Epistle.  He  has 
now  escaped  from  the  Law  which  placed  us  over  against 
God,  and  spoke  the  language  of  reproof  and  condemnation, 
into  the  Love  of  God  which  draws  us  to  its  own  side,  folds 

'  lu  the  Sanhedrin  the  president.  Nasi,  had  a  representative,  Ab- 
Beth-Diu,  who  sat  at  his  right  hand  (Weber,  yZ/i/.  T/ieol.,  p.  140). 


3i6  ROMANS  viii.,  39. 

us  in  its  inseparable  embrace,  and  forms  the  inspiration 
of  our  lives.  This  love  was  in  Christ.  Christ's  love  was 
not  one  thing,  and  God's  another  ;  for  all  true  love  is  of  one 
substance,  and  wherever  we  see  it,  but  most  of  all  in  Christ, 
it  is  the  love  of  the  Father  moving  amid  our  finite  condi- 
tions. 

We  come  now  to  the  second  main  division  of  the  doctrinal  por- 
tion of  the  Epistle  (ix.-xi.). 

The  subject  of  which  it  treats  was  suggested  by  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  period.  It  had  become  evident  that,  at 
least  for  the  time  being,  the  Jews  as  a  nation  had  rejected 
the  Gospel,  and  that  in  place  of  the  Jewish  theocracy  known 
to  history,  in  place  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  with  its  centre 
at  Jerusalem,  which  had  been  dear  to  popular  expectation,  a 
new  Church  was  arising,  composed,  so  far  as  its  principles 
were  concerned,  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  indifferently,  but  in 
fact  accepted  by  the  latter  in  numbers  becoming  ever  more 
and  more  preponderant,  and  threatening  to  assume  the  as- 
pect of  a  Gentile  institution.  This  state  of  things  might  be 
regarded  in  the  Church  itself  with  very  different  feelings 
according  to  the  nationality  of  the  believer.  To  any  Christ- 
ian of  Jewish  race  who  still  loved  his  people,  and  was  not 
under  the  dominion  of  mere  reactionary  impulses,  it  must 
have  been  fraught  with  pain  ;  to  one  who  still  reverenced  tlie 
Old  Testament  as  the  oracles  of  God,  and  believed  in  the 
ancient  promises,  it  must  have  seemed  full  of  perplexity  till 
fresh  lights  of  interpretation,  kindled  by  the  spirit  of  Christ, 
exhibited  old  and  new  as  parts  of  one  great  providential 
plan.  A  Gentile,  on  the  contrary,  who  retained  his  former 
contempt  for  the  Jews,  and  was  willing  to  minimise  his  in- 
debtedness to  Judaism,  would  rather  exult  in  the  flowing 
tide  of  Greek  superiorit}^  declare  with  satisfaction  that  the 
Jews  as  a  people  were  outcasts  from  the  Kingdom  of  God, 
and  sometimes  treat  the  Jewish  members  of  the  Church  with 


ix.,  1-5.  ROMANS  317 

a  supercilious  tolerance,  or  openly  ridicule  their  scruples. 
To  either  of  these  states  of  mind  the  subject  of  the  present 
chapters  would  have  a  deep  interest,  removing  from  the  Jew- 
ish Christian  difficulties  which  might  cloud  his  faith,  and 
presenting  to  the  Gentile  a  larger  and  truer  view  of  the  slow 
and  progressive  unfolding  of  the  purposes  of  God. 

Paul  introduces  the  subject  by  expressing  his  profound  attachment 
to  his  people,  and  his  willingness  to  incur  the  utmost  self-sacrifice 
for  them  (ix.,  1-5). 

The  strong  asseveration  in  ix.,  I,  shows  that  Paul  was  well 
aware  that  the  motives  of  an  apostate  were  open  to  suspi- 
cion, and  also  that  he  exercised  a  solemn  judgment  upon  his 
own  feelings. 

Anathema  from  Christ  (ix.,  3). — An  anathema  is  a  thing 
devoted,  and  has  come  to  be  used  in  a  bad  sense,  of  a  thing 
devoted  to  destruction.  It  must  denote  here  a  complete 
separation  from  Christ ;  but  whether  it  includes  the  idea  of 
eternal  damnation  ma}^  well  be  doubted.  In  any  case  the 
language  is  simply  that  of  strong  emotion.  A  man  may  feel 
willing  to  forego  his  own  deepest  life  in  order  that  a  nation 
may  share  it ;  but  such  renunciation  is  not  possible  in  fact, 
for  here,  too,  he  that  will  lose  his  life  shall  hnd  it. 

Who  are  Israelites  (ix.,  4). — The  word  is  used  in  a  higher 
than  a  mere  national  sense  (compare  Jn.  i.,  48  ;  2  Cor.  xi., 
22  ;  Gal.  vi.,  16).  Paul  enumerates  the  high  privileges  of 
his  race  as  a  reason  for  his  devotion  to  them,  but  also  as  an 
introduction  to  his  argument,  the  dijfficulty  lying  in  the  con- 
trast between  their  past  and  their  present  condition.  Observe 
that  the  giving  of  the  law  is  cla.ssed  with  the  adoption  and 
the  promises. 

Who  is  over  all,  God  blessed  for  ever  (ix.,  5). — The  connec- 
tion and  translation  of  these  w^ords  are  much  disputed.  A 
full  discussion  of  them  is  much  too  technical  for  the  present 
commentary  ;  but  I  think  the  main  points  may  be  made  in- 


3i8  ROMANS  ix.,  5. 

telligible  without  resorting  to  Greek.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  so  far  as  the  grammar  is  concerned,  the  words  may  be 
connected  with  Christ.  There  is  also  no  doubt  that  a  full 
stop  might  be  placed  at  "flesh,"  and  the  following  words 
translated,  "  He  who  is  over  all,  God,  is  blessed  for  ever." 
Other  modes  of  punctuating  and  translating  have  been  sug- 
gested ;  but  on  the  whole  the  question  resolves  itself  into 
these  two  modes.  The  names  of  distinguished  scholars  are 
found  on  both  sides. 

The  followiug  are  the  principal  objections  urged  against  placing 
the  full  stop  at  "flesh."  (i)  In  ascriptions  of  blessing  the  word 
"blessed"  is  always  placed  first,  as  in  2  Cor.  i.,  3.  This  is  not  abso- 
lutely correct  as  a  matter  of  fact,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  the  general 
rule.  The  order  of  words,  however,  depends  entirely  on  the  empha- 
sis ;  and  as  the  emphasis  is  usually  on  "  blessed,"  that  word  occupies 
the  first  place.  We  have  an  instructive  example  in  another  word 
which  is  also  translated  "  blessed,"  as  in  the  beatitudes.  In  forty-two 
passages  in  the  New  Testament  this  word  is  placed  first ;  but  in  one 
instance  (James  i.,  25)  the  emphasis  is  on  the  subject,  and  the  order 
of  the  words  is  accordingly  reversed.  It  follows  that  if  we  place  the 
emphasis  on  "  He  who  is  over  all,"  the  order  of  the  words  is  perfectly 
correct.  As  we  shall  see,  these  are  precisely  the  words  which  the 
sentiment  of  the  passage  requires  us  to  emphasise.  (2)  The  expres- 
sion "he  who  is  "  would  be  altogether  superfluous,  and  we  ought  to 
have  simply  "  the  supreme  God  is  blessed."  But  this  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  shade  of  meaning  which  the  writer  wished  to  convey. 
If  he  desired  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  of  the  Divine  supremacy, 
which  ordered  all  things,  giving  and  taking  away,  he  would  express 
himself  in  the  words  before  us,  and  the  delicate  sentiment  of  the  pas- 
sage would  be  destroyed  by  any  alteration.  So  far,  then,  as  grammar 
and  the  use  of  words  are  concerned,  I  think  there  is  nothing  to  incline 
our  opinion  one  way  or  the  other,  and  we  must  appeal  to  more  general 
considerations. 

Appeal  is  made  on  both  sides  to  antiquity  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  greatly  preponderant  view  is  in  favour  of  referring  the  words 
to  Christ,  though  I  think  there  is  room  for  hesitation  in  the  case  of  one 
or  two  of  the  authors  who  are  cited.  On  the  other  band  we  must 
notice  that  some  of  the  oldest  and  best  manuscripts  have  a  point  at 


IX.,  5.  ROMANS  319 

"  flesh."  '  This  of  course  only  represents  an  opinion,  because  it  is 
not  probable  that  the  original  copies  had  any  punctuation  ;  but  it 
supplements  our  other  evidence  that  opinion  was  not  unanimous. 
However,  the  judgment  of  early  writers  must  be  taken  simply  for 
what  it  is  worth  in  itself;  for  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it 
represents  a  traditional  interpretation  coming  down  from  apostolic 
times. 

We  nuist  inquire  next  into  Pauline  usage.  On  the  one  side,  it  is 
said  that  the  words  "  as  concerning  the  flesh  "  require  an  antithesis. 
But  the  antithesis  suggests  itself,  as  we  can  see  by  going  back  only  a 
few  lines,  to  verse  3.  Paul,  like  his  Master,  was  now  related  to  the  Jew 
only  by  race,  and  not  in  the  spirit  of  his  life.  Besides,  the  following 
words  do  not  express  an  antithesis,  but  only  add  a  description.  An 
antithesis  would  have  to  assume  some  such  form  as,  "  but  not  accord- 
ing to  his  Godhead."  On  the  other  side  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
word  "  blessed  "  is  nowhere  else  applied  to  Christ ;  but,  as  it  occurs 
only  in  four  other  passages  in  the  Pauline  writings,  we  have  too  few 
instances  to  establish  a  usage.  A  more  serious,  if  not  absolutely  de- 
cisive consideration  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  application  of  such  an 
expression  to  Christ  would  be  quite  unique  in  the  writings  of  Paul. 
Jesus  is  mentioned  66  times  in  the  present  Epistle,  225  times  in  all  the 
Pauline  Epistles.  How  is  it  that  in  this  immense  number  of  refer- 
ences he  never  uses  a  similar  expression  ?  If  he  held  the  doctrine 
involved  in  this  mode  of  understanding  his  words,  bis  mind  must  have 
been  full  of  it,  and  we  should  expect  it  to  be  flashing  perpetually  into 
vivid  phrases.  But  not  only  is  this  the  case,  not  only  does  he  speak 
of  Christ  as  "man"  without  any  qualification  (Rom.  v.,  15.  Cotn- 
pare  i  Tim.  ii.,  5,  where  the  absence  of  any  higher  description  is 
almost  startling),  not  only  does  he  say  that  "  Christ  is  God's"  (i  Cor. 
iii.,  23),  and  "  the  head  of  Christ  is  God  "  (i  Cor.  xi.,  3),  and  is  care- 
ful to  explain  that  Christ's  universal  dominion  must  be  understood  to 
have  been  given,  and  given  only  for  a  time  (i  Cor.  xv.,  24-28)  ;  but, 
when  he  uses  his  most  elevated  language,  be  always  markedly  dis- 
tinguishes Christ  from  God,  "  the  image  of  God  "  (2  Cor.  iv.,  4 ;  Col. 
i..  15).  "i"  the  form  of  God"  (Phil,  ii.,  6),  "God  highly  exalted 
him"  {ib.,  9).  With  this  usage,  it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  Paul 
would  in  such  a  passage  as  the  present  omit  all  reference  to  God  the 

'  Professor  C.  R.  Gregory  says  that  the  larger  number  of  Greek 
MvSS.  have  a  full  stop  after  "  flesh."  See  The  Atnerican  Journal  0/ 
Theology,  January,  1897,  p.  33. 


320  ROMANS  ix.,  5. 

Father,  and  adopt  words  which,  standing  by  themselves,  could  only 
suggest  that  Jesus  was  the  sole  supreme  God.  This  consideration  is, 
to  my  own  mind,  decisive. 

How,  then,  are  we  to  interpret  the  sentiment  of  the  passage  ?  It  is 
true  that  a  triumphant  thanksgiving  would  be  totally  out  of  place  ; 
but  this  is  not  contained  in  the  translation  which  we  have  given,  and 
which,  in  my  opinion  (if  we  place  the  full  stop  at  "  flesh  "),  is  required 
by  grammar  and  usage.  It  will  be  admitted  that  the  word  "  Christ," 
if  it  stood  aloue,  would  have  fitly  terminated  the  list  of  Jewish  privi- 
leges. But  it  at  once  occurs  to  Paul  that  the  Jewish  descent  of  Christ 
is  true  only  in  a  limited  sense  ;  in  spirit  he  was  no  national  hero  or  the 
prophet  of  a  single  people,  and  the  Jews'  rejection  of  him  showed 
that  they  were  separated  spiritually  by  a  wide  chasm.  Here  are 
blended  the  two  notes  which  dominate  the  passage,  that  of  patriotic 
affection  as  the  Apostle  thinks  of  the  glory  of  Israel,  that  of  sorrow  as 
he  remembers  that  the  Kingdom  of  God  has  passed  from  them.  With 
the  words  "as  concerning  the  flesh,"  he  is  plunged  into  grief ;  but  he 
cannot  end  with  an  expression  which  might  seem  to  imply  that  all 
had  ended  in  disaster,  and  that  God's  promises  were  broken.  So  he 
strengthens  his  own  and  his  readers'  hearts  by  the  thought  of  One 
who  is  over  all,  guiding  the  vicissitudes  of  nations,  and  working 
towards  His  own  glorious  ends,  even  God,  who,  however  mysterious 
and  painful  may  be  His  methods,  is  blessed  for  ever.  We  thus  reach 
a  sentiment  of  resignation  and  trust  which  is  precise!}'  suited  to  the 
context,  and  which  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  every  word  and  of  the  arrangement  of  every  word.  It  also 
suits  the  following  verse.  The  words  of  devout  acquiescence  inight 
almost  seem  to  suggest  a  doubt  whether  the  Divine  purpose  had  not 
changed.  In  a  moment  Paul  throws  off  the  implied  difficulty, — "  Rut 
I  do  not  mean  that  the  word  of  God  has  failed  "  ;  and  he  then  pro- 
ceeds with  his  close  and  unimpassioned  argument. 

He  begins  by  stating  clearly  the  proposition  that  has  to  be  proved, 

It  is  not  as  tJiough  the  word  of  God  hath  come  to  nought  (ix.,  6). 

That  this  proposition  contains  the  determining  subject  of 
the  three  chapters  is  apparent  from  the  recurrence  of  the 
same  thought  in  different  forms  as  the  argument  draws  to  its 
close:  "God  did  not  reject  his  people"  (xi.,  i)  ;  "they 
stumbled,  but  not  that  they  might  finally  fall  "  (xi.,  11);  "all 


ix.,  6-1 1.  ROMANS  32 1 

Israel  shall  be  saved  "  (xi.,  26)  ;  "  the  gifts  and  the  calling 
of  God  are  without  repentance"  (xi.,  29)  ;  "in  order  that 
they  also  may  now  obtain  mercy,  for  God  shut  up  all  unto 
disobedience  that  He  may  have  mercy  upon  all"  (xi.,  31, 
32).  Thus  the  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  word  to  Israel  recurs 
as  a  refrain,  till  it  ends  in  a  burst  of  praise,  "  O  the  depth 
of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God  !  " 

' '  The  word  of  God  ' '  does  not  mean  the  Scriptures  gener- 
all}',  but  something  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as  having 
been  spoken  by  God,  as  appears  clearly  from  verse  9. 

Paul  appeals,  first  of  all,  to  the  original  character  of  the  Divine 
election  (ix.,  6-13). 

For  they  are  7iot  all  Israel  who  are  of  Israel  (ix.,  6). — Israel 
is  used  here  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  Israel  of  God. 
These  words  contain  the  first  step  in  the  argument.  From 
the  first  the  heirs  of  the  promise  were  determined  by  a  provi- 
dential selection,  which  set  aside  the  claims  of  fleshly  descent. 
This  general  principle  is  proved,  in  the  following  verses,  by 
particular  instances.  Abraham  had  a  son  Ishmael,  but  the 
promise  was  limited  to  the  line  of  Israel.  But  there  is  a 
stronger  case  :  Jacob  and  Ksau  had  the  same  mother  as  well 
as  the  same  father  ;  yet  before  they  were  born  the  promise 
was  restricted  to  Jacob,  the  3'ounger  of  the  two. 

This  is  a  word  of  promise  (ix.,  9). — The  emphasis  is  on 
"  promise."  The  passage  cited  (according  to  its  sense)  from 
Gen.  xviii.,  10,  proves  that  Isaac  was  a  child  of  promise,  and 
the  whole  incident  shows  that  the  children  of  God  are  not 
determined  by  mere  physical  lineage. 

The  purpose  of  God  according  to  election  (ix.,  II). — This 
verse  does  not  assert  that  nothing  in  human  life  depends  on 
human  volition.  The  election  refers  to  the  choosing  of  na- 
tions to  fulfil  a  certain  providential  purpose  in  the  spiritual 
development  of  mankind.  The  mental  characteristics  of  the 
Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  Jews  were  not  created  by  the 


322  ROMANS  ix.,  13,  14. 

will  of  the  individuals  composing  these  nations  ;  and  if  Israel 
has  impressed  its  religion  upon  the  world,  while  Edoni  has 
been  spiritually  barren,  we  can  ascribe  this  fact  onh'  to  the 
selective  purpose  of  God.  How  far  nations  are  faithful  to 
their  calling  and  election,  and  what  happens  to  the  unfaith- 
ful, are  questions  which  are  not  at  present  raised.  We 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  Jews  had  the  strongest  belief  in 
responsibility,  and  therefore  in  free  will,  God  determined 
the  circumstances  of  men,  but  left  it  to  themselves  whether 
they  would  be  righteous  or  godless.'  Abraham  himself  was 
chosen  on  account  of  his  righteousness.^  A  curious  Hag- 
gada  even  relates  how  Jacob  and  Esau  conversed,  before 
their  birth,  about  the  two  worlds,  and  that  Jacob  there  and 
then  chose  the  future  world,  while  Esau,  denying  the  resur- 
rection, chose  the  present.' 

Jacob  I  loved,  but  Esaic  I  hated  (ix.,  13). — This  quotation 
from  Malachi  i.,  2,  3,  states  concisely,  in  Scriptural  words, 
the  historical  fulfilment  of  the  promise  in  the  previous  verse  ; 
God's  blessing  had  never  rested  on  the  Edomites,  It  would 
be  hypercritical  to  insist  that  Paul  here  ascribes  hatred  to 
God,  He  who  so  dwells  upon  God's  love  can  hardly  have 
intended  to  do  so,  and  at  another  time  would  maintain  that 
God  hates  nothing  that  He  has  made.  The  word  is  in  a 
quotation  which  suited  his  purpOvSe  ;  and  had  he  been  using 
his  own  language  he  might  have  expressed  himself  differently. 

An  objection  has  now  to  be  met,  and  Paul  proceeds  to  prove  that 
the  elective  action  of  God,  including  especially  the  present  applica- 
tion of  it,  is  not  unjust  (ix.,  14-29). 

Is  there  Jinrighfeousness  with  Godf  (ix.,  14). — "Unright- 
eousness" is  here  used  in  its  stricter  sense  of  injustice. 
Why  should  anyone  think  the  mode  of  action  which  Paul 
has  described  unjust?  No  one  thinks  it  unjust  that  God 
distributes  intellectual  gifts  as  it  pleases  Him.    Two  answers 

'  Weber, ///ly.  Theol.,  p.  216.         -  lb.,  p.  264.         -  lb.,  p.  401. 


ix.,  15-17.  ROMANS  323 

maj'  be  given.  Character  is  so  miicli  more  implicated  with 
the  will  than  is  intellect  that  we  often  forget  that  religious 
power  and  originality  are  as  much  a  gift  as  the  inspiration 
of  a  poet.  And  further,  the  cry  of  injustice  is  never  so 
sedulously  raised  as  when  long-established  privileges  are  at- 
tacked. To  the  Jew  his  privileges  seemed  a  sort  of  Divine 
right ;  and  though  to  us  the  placing  of  Jew  and  Gentile  on 
the  same  level  may  seem  an  act  of  justice,  to  the  ordinary 
Pharisee  it  would  seem  an  outrage  on  the  order  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  Paul  himself  may  have  found  it  hard  to  realise 
his  new  position  when  he  first  felt  that  he  was  simpl)'  one  of 
the  great  family  of  God,  to  whom  he  owed  everything,  and 
from  whom  he  could  claim  nothing. 

I  will  have  mercy  on  zvJiom  I  have  mercy  (more  correctly,  I 
think,  "  whomsoever,"  ix.,  15). — The  quotation  is  from  Ex. 
xxxiii.,  19,  of  which  the  context  should  be  read,  as  Paul 
assumes  that  his  readers  are  acquainted  with  the  passages  to 
which  he  refers.  The  point  of  the  narrative  is  that  the 
Israelites  were  threatened  with  desertion  by  God  on  account 
of  their  sins,  and  that  the  Lord  consented  to  remain  with 
them  on  the  pure  ground  of  His  pit5^  The  Jews,  then,  had 
forfeited  their  spiritual  privileges  even  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
and  retained  them,  not  on  account  of  their  birth  or  legal 
works,  but  solely  on  account  of  God's  undeserved  compas- 
sion. 

//  is  not  of  him  that  willeth  (ix.,  16). — This  deduces  a  gen- 
eral principle  from  the  special  instance.  All  our  eager 
running  after  spiritual  superiorit}^  will  never  bring  us  to  it ; 
and  he  who  simply  waits  upon  God's  infinite  love,  and  is 
content  to  take  the  lowest  post  of  self-denying  service  which 
He  may  appoint,  shall  enter  His  kingdom  before  us.  Any 
eminent  position  that  a  man  may  hold  in  that  kingdom  has 
been  given,  not  earned. 

For  the  Scripture  saith  unto  Pharaoh  (ix.,  17). — This  is 
generally  taken  as  the  introduction  of  an  opposite  instance 


324  ROMANS  ix.,  i8. 

to  the  foregoing,  an  example  of  God's  unconditioned  wrath. 
But  in  this  view  the  "  for  "  has  no  meaning  ;  and  the  exam- 
ple ought  to  prove  that  something  had  proceeded,  not  from 
man's  desert,  but  from  the  mercy  of  God.  Now  the  verse 
makes  two  important  afi&rmations  :  that  it  was  God  who 
raised  up  Pharaoh,  and  that  He  did  this  with  a  special  pur- 
pose. As  Pharaoh  did  not  contemplate  this  purpose,  he  illus- 
trates "not  of  him  that  willeth."  As  the  purpose,  the 
publishing  of  God's  name  in  all  the  earth,  is  a  benevolent 
one,  we  have  an  example  of  the  mercy  of  God,  overruling 
the  willing  and  ruining  of  a  bad  man,  and  bringing  good 
out  of  evil.  Thus  Paul  touches  on  what  he  conceived  to  be 
the  true  principle  of  Divine  action  :  it  was  a  world-embracing 
mercy,  selecting  and  rejecting  with  a  view  to  the  most  benefi- 
cent results.  This  foreshadows  the  close  of  his  argument  : 
the  Jews  were  hardened,  for  a  time,  that  the  world  might 
come  in  ;  God  shut  up  all  unto  disobedience,  that  He  might 
have  mercy  upon  all  (xi.,  32). 

Whom  he  will  he  hardeneth  (ix.,  18). — This  verse  sums  up 
the  first  reply  to  the  question,  "  Is  there  injustice  with 
God  ?  "  It  points  out  two  modes  of  dealing  with  undeserv- 
ing men,  but  does  not  mention  the  motive  to  which  allusion 
has  been  made,  and  which  is  worked  out  at  a  later  stage  of 
the  argument.  "  Hardened  "  has  in  English  a  moral  impli- 
cation which,  I  think,  is  absent  from  the  Greek.  It  means 
"to  make  obstinate,"  and  is  applied  to  men  who  are  not 
easily  convinced.'  Here  it  refers  to  that  blindness  of  judg- 
ment which  ended  in  a  disaster  that  might  have  been  pre- 
vented by  a  little  political  sagacity.  Paul,  we  can  hardly 
doubt,  had  his  countrymen  in  his  mind.     They  were  hard- 

'  This  meaning  suits  Acts  xix.,  9;  Heb.  iii.,  8  (also  15,  and  iv.,  7) 
and  13,  where  also  the  word  is  found.  There  is  a  good  example  in 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Ec,  ii.,  17,  el  8'  ini  Tuvroi<i  dvvi^.EycDi^  rii  eti 
GHXrjpvroiTo,  where  the  reference  can  be  only  to  intellectual  obsti- 
nacy or  duluess,  a  6v6ni6Tia,  as  it  is  presently  called. 


ix.,  19.  ROMANS  325 

ened  so  that  they  could  not  read  the  signs  of  the  times  ;  and 
this  hardening  was  necessary  (to  speak  from  an  historical 
point  of  view)  in  order  that  the  Gospel  might  have  free 
course  among  the  Gentiles,  and  work  out  its  own  independent 
hfe. 

Why  doth  he  still  find  fault  [or  blame]  f  For  who  ivith- 
standcth  his  will?  (ix.,  19).— The  difficulty  started  in  verse  14 
is  presented  in  another  form  ;  but  it  is  not  obvious  what  the 
precise  point  of  the  difficulty  is.  It  is  generally  assumed  to 
be  in  effect  this, — If  God  chooses  to  harden  me,  why  does 
He  blame  me  for  being  hardened  ?  or,  as  "hardened"  is 
understood  in  a  moral  sense,  if  God  makes  me  sinful,  why 
does  He  blame  me  for  sinning  ?  To  this  there  are  serious 
objections,  (i)  If  our  interpretation  so  far  has  been  correct, 
there  has  been  nothing  to  suggest  such  a  question.  (2)  This 
question  expresses  one  of  the  most  serious  doubts  that  can 
affect  the  human  mind  ;  and  if  this  is  what  is  meant,  Paul 
has  treated  it  with  a  frivolity  which  is  quite  out  of  keeping 
with  his  character.  To  say  that  a  potter  has  a  right  to  make 
an  ugly  dish  does  not  prove  that  he  would  be  right  in  blaming 
it  for  being  ugly.  (3)  The  doctrine  implied  in  this  inter- 
pretation is  inconsistent  with  Paul's  belief  in  human  respons- 
ibility. In  order  to  find  the  true  meaning  let  us  recall  the 
point  established  in  the  last  section.  It  was  this,  that  the 
favours  which  God  bestows  upon  the  guilty  are  an  offering 
of  pure  mercy  ;  and  that  the  same  mercy,  taking  a  more 
comprehensive  range,  maj'  see  fit  to  prepare  the  guilty  for 
their  fall  ;  but  in  either  case  God  works  out  His  own  benefi- 
cent plan.  Now  is  it  not  a  natural,  though  not  a  wi.se  or 
devout  retort  for  the  guilty  man  to  say,  "  Well,  then,  why 
am  I  to  be  blamed  ?  If,  whatever  I  do,  I  am  working  out 
God's  purposes,  what  right  has  He  to  find  fault  with  me  ? 
Even  Pharaoh  caused  God's  name  to  be  declared  throughout 
the  earth,  in  accordance  witli  tlie  Divine  will  ;  who  is  there, 
then,  that  resists  that  will  ?  "    This  question  and  the  reason- 


326  ROMANS  ix.,  20. 

ing  on  which  it  is  grounded  are  similar  to  those  in  iii.,  5  and 
7,  so  that  our  interpretation  is  not  only  suggested  by  the 
context,  but  is  agreeable  to  a  known  train  of  thought  in  the 
Apostle's  mind. 

Nay  but,  O  man,  who  art  thou  that  repliest  against  God? 
(ix.,  20). — In  the  ordinary  interpretation  this  is  simply  an 
attempt  to  browbeat  an  opponent  who  presents  an  unanswer- 
able difficulty.  As  we  have  understood  it,  the  question 
amounts  to  this  :  If  God  brings  good  out  of  our  evil,  why 
should  that  evil  be  found  fault  with  ?  In  the  third  chapter 
Paul  dismisses  this  as  an  illegitimate  question,  simply  point- 
ing out  its  inconsistenc}'  with  the  fundamental  fact  of  human 
responsibility,  and  intimating  that  it  involves  the  principle 
of  doing  evil  that  good  may  come.  Here  he  does  not  feel 
called  upon  to  give  any  reply  to  a  query  which  seemed  to 
him  immoral ;  and  he  therefore  throws  it  off,  and  turns  it 
round  to  the  main  subject  of  discussion.  The  connection 
may  then  be  presented  thus  :  Instead  of  asking  why  God 
should  blame  you,  it  would  be  much  more  fitting  to  ask  why 
you  should  blame  God,  as  though  He  had  not  an  absolute 
right  to  assign  your  place  in  the  world,  and  to  give  you  a 
position  of  honour  or  lack  of  honour  as  He  sees  to  be  best. 
This,  accordingly,  is  not  intended  to  be  an  answer  to  the 
question  in  verse  19,  but  is  the  second  answer  to  the  question 
in  verse  14  :  God  is  not  unjust  in  His  elective  action,  because, 
as  their  Creator,  He  may  assign  men  their  various  posts  of 
service  according  to  His  own  good  pleasure.  One  difficulty, 
however,  remains  :  why  does  Paul  propose  a  question  which 
he  does  not  condescend  to  answer  ?  Simply,  I  believe, 
because  the  question  was  actually  proposed  by  his  calinn- 
niators,  to  whom  he  alludes  in  iii.,  8.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  change  of  form.  In  verse  14  we  read,  "What 
shall  we  say  then?"  and  a  serious  difficulty  is  seriously 
met.  Here  the  question  is  transferred  to  an  opponent, 
"  Thou  shalt  say  then  unto  me  "  ;  and  as  it  has  its  origin  in 


ix.,  21-29.  ROMANS  327 

malice  rather  than  in  real  perplexity  of  thought,  Paul  turns 
on  his  opponent  and  shows  that  in  claiming  spiritual  privi- 
leges as  a  right  he  is  denying  the  free  sovereignty  of  God. 

Honour,  dishonour  (ix.,  2l). — These  words  confirm  our 
interpretation.  Tlie  question  is  not  of  making  good  or  bad 
vessels  (for  no  decent  potter  would  be  so  foolish  as  to  make 
a  bad  vessel),  but  of  making  vessels  of  various  degrees  of 
dignity  in  the  household  economy.  The  moral  question 
does  not  come  in  at  all  ;  for  the  scullery  bowl  may  be  quite 
as  good  in  its  kind  as  the  drawing-room  vase. 

In  the  following  verses  Paul  indicates  what  he  believed  to 
be  the  real  state  of  the  case  in  relation  to  the  srrowine 
Gentile  Church  (ix.,  22-29).  The  construction  is  broken, 
and  the  grammatical  connection  a  little  uncertain  ;  but  the 
general  sense  is  clear.  God  had  a  perfect  right  to  distribute 
His  spiritual  gifts  as  He  pleased  ;  but  in  fact  the  Jewish 
nation  had  forfeited  its  prerogative,  and  was  ripe  for  destruc- 
tion. God  had  long  borne  with  them,  wishing,  as  in  the 
case  of  Pharaoh,  to  make  His  indignation  against  sin  more 
conspicuous.  This  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  teaching  of 
ii.,  4,  that  the  long-sufifering  of  God  leads  to  repentance; 
for  in  that  very  passage  the  two  ideas  are  combined.  The 
man  who  remains  impenitent  lays  up  an  accumulating  store 
of  wrath  for  the  day  when  God's  righteous  judgment  will  be 
revealed.  But  God  had  another  purpose  in  the  Christian 
movement,  "to  make  known  the  riches  of  His  glory." 
That  glory  was  not  so  poor  and  narrow  as  some  of  the  Jews 
supposed,  but  shone  also  upon  the  Gentile  world  ;  and  if 
He  had  prepared  Jewish  hearts  through  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,  He  had  prepared  pagan  souls  as  well  through  the 
consciousness  of  deeper  needs  and  the  faintness  of  a  strange 
thirst  for  the  unknown  God.  To  show  His  glory  He  pre- 
pared a  new  race  for  glory  ;  for  our  spiritual  glory  is  a  ray 
from  the  Divine,  an  indwelling  of  that  Spirit  which  alone 
can  constitute  us  in  the  highest  sense  sons  of  God. 


328  ROMANS  ix.,  25-30. 

The  position  thus  reached  is  illustrated  by  quotations 
from  the  Prophets  (ix.,  25-29).  Those  from  Hosea  ii.,  23, 
and  i,,  10,  refer  originally  to  the  Israelites  of  the  northern 
tribes.  Here  they  are  applied  to  the  Gentiles ;  and  the 
Apostle  may  cite  them  as  evidence  of  the  general  principle 
that,  although  at  one  period  a  people  might  be  rejected,  yet 
at  another  they  might  be  accepted,  and  to  show  that  the 
claim  now  made  on  behalf  of  the  Gentiles  was  no  more  than 
had  once  been  required  by  the  Israelites  themselves.  In  the 
quotation  from  Isaiah  x.,  22,  23,  the  emphasis  must  belaid 
on  "  the  remnant."  As  in  Assyrian,  so  was  it  in  Roman 
times  ;  the  flood  of  justice  was  flowing  over  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, and  only  a  remnant  should  be  saved.  The  quotation 
from  i.,  9,  contains,  b}'  implication,  a  terrible  indictment  of 
the  moral  corruption  of  the  people,  and  an  appalling  picture 
of  the  fate  which  their  sins  deserved.  This  brings  the 
original  question  round  to  an  unexpected  issue.  Is  there  in- 
justice with  God?  No,  there  is  justice;  and  therefore  a 
seed  of  evil-doers  may  tremble.  Punishment  may  seem  long 
delayed  ;  but  God  is  not  mocked,  and  at  last  it  shall  come 
down  as  upon  the  cities  of  the  plain. 

Having  vindicated  the  righteousness  of  Divine  election,  Paul 
next  proceeds  to  state  the  existing  facts  in  regard  to  Jew  and  Gen- 
tile, in  order  to  reach  the  spiritual  law  on  which  the  facts  depended 
(ix.,  30-x.,  13). 

He  assumes  as  a  fact  that  the  Gentiles,  as  represented 
by  the  scattered  groups  of  believers,  had  accepted  the  Gos- 
pel, and  that  the  Jews  as  a  nation  had  rejected  it ;  and  this 
shows,  I  think,  that  the  Gentiles  in  the  Church  alread}^  far 
outnumbered  those  of  Jewish  birth. 

The  case  of  the  Gentiles  is  taken  first  (ix.,  30).  In  saying 
that  they  did  not  follow  after  righteousness,  Paul  is  simply 
referring  to  a  general  characteristic  of  heathen  life  and  re- 
ligion. We  know  that  there  were  splendid  exceptions  ;  but 
with  these  he  is  not  at  present  concerned.     In  every  church 


ix.,  31,  32.  ROMAXS  329 

which  he  founded  he  must  have  known  of  numbers  of  in- 
stances in  which  the  spiritual  power  of  the  Gospel  took 
possession  of  hearts  which  had  never  before  aspired  after  a 
Divine  life.  The  righteousness  thus  attained  was  a  right- 
eousness which  sprang  out  of  faith,  in  the  sense  which  has 
been  already-  explained.  Observe  how  the  attainment  of 
genuine  righteousness  is  the  goal  of  Paul's  thought,  and  he 
reduces  the  rival  claims  of  religions  to  a  great  practical  test. 

The  case  of  Israel  is  considered  more  full}'  (ix.,  31-x.,  3). 
They  followed  after  "a  law  of  righteousness":  that  is, 
they  made  a  written  law  their  supreme  rule  of  life,  pursuing 
the  outward  form  and  not  the  inward  reality  of  goodness. 
So  pursuing,  they  did  not  even  attain  to  law,  the  external 
seemliness  of  a  well-ordered  life.  The  word  "  that,''  which 
our  translators  have  inserted  before  "  law,"  has  nothing  in 
the  Greek  to  justify  it ;  and  I  think  it  impairs  the  sense. 

The  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  Jews  is  now  stated  :  they 
followed  a  wrong  method  (ix.,  32).  To  pursue  righteous- 
ness by  works  is  to  seek  it  in  obedience  to  the  letter  of  an 
outward  rule.  The  natural  effect  of  this  is  to  harden,  or,  as 
Paul  says,  "  to  kill,"  the  inner  life  of  man.  It  imposes  fet- 
ters on  the  free  forces  of  the  mind,  places  the  judgment  in 
leading-strings,  and  chills  the  fresh  and  glowing"  instincts 
which  turn  to  the  good  and  true  wherever  found.  The 
operation  of  faith  is  different :  it  opens  the  soul  to  the  free 
inpouring  of  the  Divine  Spirit  ;  and  if  tlie  Jews  had  com- 
mitted themselves  to  the  faith  of  Isaiah  instead  of  the  legal- 
ism of  Ezra,  the  results  on  the  national  character  would 
have  been  of  a  far  higher  order.  Historically,  however,  the 
legalism  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  nation  from  being 
absorbed  in  the  surrounding  heathenism.  The  Law  thus 
fulfilled  a  Divine  purpose  ;  but  nevertheless  it  caused  the 
Jews  to  stumble  when  Christ  called  them  to  the  righteousness 
of  God.  A  characteristic  result  of  legalism,  whether  of 
works  or  of  creeds,  is  the  inability  which  it  lays  upon  the 


330  ROMANS  ix.,  33. 

mind  of  appreciating  anything  excellent  which  lies  outside 
the  prescribed  rule.  Goodness  must  appear  in  one  particular 
garb,  and  express  itself  in  one  familiar  language.  What- 
ever lies  beyond  the  pale  is  the  world  of  sin,  and  the  seeming 
beauty  of  holiness  that  may  be  found  in  it  is  only  the  deceit- 
ful ray  that  lures  men  to  their  destruction.  The  zeal  of  the 
Jews,  then,  for  their  "  law  of  righteousness  "  would,  just  in 
proportion  to  its  intensity,  disqualify  them  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  an  original  goodness;  which  lived  calmly  out  of  its 
own  depths,  and  drew  its  inspiration  from  the  Father,  and 
not  from  the  Law.  While  many  a  poor  Gentile,  who  had 
nothing  but  mother  nature  to  trust  to,  was  drawn  by  the 
God-given  emotions  of  the  heart  to  feel  that  this  was  indeed 
the  life  from  heaven,  the  Jew,  with  his  artificial  training, 
could  see  no  beauty  in  the  inner  soul  of  goodness,  nor 
acknowledge,  when  it  lived  and  breathed  before  him,  that 
"righteousness  of  God"  wdiich  is  itself  the  fountain  and 
the  judge  of  Law.  But  besides  this,  the  Jew  felt,  and  felt 
correctly,  that  there  was  in  principle  an  irreconcilable  an- 
tagonism between  the  spirit  of  Christ  and  the  exclusiveness 
of  his  own  system.  In  such  circumstances  how  many  were 
likely  to  be  found  who  would  leave  the  path  which,  if  a 
narrow  one,  glowed  with  the  fervid  memories  of  a  thousand 
years,  and  had  been  trodden  by  judges,  and  kings,  and 
prophets,  which  marked  a  track  of  verdant  life  amid  the 
pagan  desert,  and  which  alone  promised  to  guide  the  chosen 
few  into  God's  glorious  kingdom,  and  all  to  follow,  in  obedi- 
ence to  unauthorised  dreams,  an  upstart  teacher  to  a  bloody 
doom  ?  Thus  it  was  that  seeking  righteousness,  not  from 
the  deep  and  inner  wells  of  a  Divine  communion,  but  from 
the  unyielding  mechanism  of  an  outward  system,  their  hearts 
were  hardened  against  the  appeals  of  Christianity.  In  de- 
votion to  the  form  they  lost  the  substance,  and  "  stumbled 
at  the  stone  of  stumbling." 

The  quotation  in  ix.,  lit  is  made  up  from  Isaiah  xxviii., 


X.,  1-4.  ROMANS  331 

16,  and  viii.,  14.  "  On  him  "  is  inserted  by  Paul,  for  it  is 
not  in  either  the  Hebrew  or  the  lxx.  The  insertion  suits 
the  immediate  context,  in  which  the  Apostle  is  dweUing,  not 
upon  the  want  of  faith  generally  in  the  Jews,  but  upon  the 
special  exemplification  of  it  in  their  rejection  of  Christ,  with 
all  that  that  rejection  involved. 

Having  reached  a  sad  conclusion,  Paul's  tender  affection 
and  solicitude  once  more  seek  expression  (x.,  l).  The  Jews 
really  had  a  zeal  for  God  ;  but  as  it  was  misdirected,  it  pro- 
duced mischievous  results  (x.,  2,  3)-  They  were  ignorant 
of  real  righteousness,  as  it  exists  in  the  nature  of  God  Him- 
self, and  sought  to  establish  righteousness  as  it  existed  in, 
and  was  conceived  by,  themselves,  that  is,  their  own  peculiar 
system,  their  own  narrow  views,  of  righteousness,  which 
they  regarded  as  final  and  unchangeable.  Hence  "  they  did 
not  subject  themselves  to  the  righteousness  of  God,"  of 
which  men  can  become  the  organs,  not  by  devotion  to  their 
own  sect  or  law  or  creed,  but  only  by  committing  themselves 
to  God  in  the  submissiveness  of  faith. 

The  foregoing  remarks  suggest  the  abolition  of  the  Law, 
and  therefore  of  the  distinction  between  Jew  and  Greek, 
under  the  new  principle  of  faith  (x.,  4-13). 

For  Christ  is  the  end  of  the  law,  or,  more  exactly,  Christ 
is  an  end  of  law  (x.,  4).— If  we  understand  "  Christ  "  merely 
of  the  historical  person,  we  shall  only  have  a  conflict  of  opin- 
ion, and  no  advance  in  spiritual  thought.  With  Paul  "  the 
Lord  is  the  Spirit"  (2  Cor.  iii.,  17),  and  I  think  we  often 
miss  the  full  depth  and  force  of  his  meaning  if  we  refer  his 
words  only  to  Christ's  historical  and  official  relations,  and 
not  to  the  enthronement  of  the  "life  of  God"  within  the 
life  of  man,  which  was  realised  in  Christ.  To  the  heart  that 
loves  him  this  one  name  comes  laden  with  a  world  of  spir- 
itual thought,  which  being  presented  in  a  concrete  form,  and 
vivified  by  the  afifections,  makes  its  appeal  with  a  power 
which  abstract  speculation  has  never  succeeded  in  attaining. 


332  ROMANS  x.,  4-8. 

Thus  Christ  is  the  end  of  law  for  righteousness,  not  merely 
by  historical  position  and  by  special  work,  but  by  what  he 
was,  the  Son  of  God  with  power,  whose  Spirit  in  the  heart 
of  man  makes  all  questions  of  form,  comparatively  speaking, 
indifferent. 

To  everyone  that  believeth  (x.,  4). — As  usual,  no  object  is 
expressed  ;  and  though  faith  in  Christ  must  be  included,  it 
is  best  to  understand  the  word  in  the  high  spiritual  sense 
which  we  have  all  along  attached  to  the  word  :  those  who 
had  faith  recognised  in  Christ  the  end  of  Law,  and  sought 
for  righteousness  by  a  new  principle.  It  was  not  a  question 
of  transferring  belief  from  one  object  to  another,  but  of  re- 
ceiving that  trustful  apprehension  of  inward  realities  which 
freed  men  from  the  impotence  of  outward  symbols. 

We  now  see  the  connection  between  this  and  the  previous 
verse.  The  Jews  did  not  subject  themselves  to  the  righteous- 
ness of  God  ;  "  for,"  had  they  done  so,  they  would  have 
recognised  in  Christ  the  realisation  of  that  goodness  of  which 
all  law  is  but  the  imperfect  expression,  and  which  therefore, 
when  it  appears,  puts  an  end  to  the  principle  of  legal  obedi- 
ence.    When  the  perfect  comes,  the  partial  vanishes. 

In  what  has  been  said  a  principle  has  been  laid  down 
which  opened  the  door  for  the  free  admission  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. Paul  proceeds  to  show  that  the  Law  itself  described 
not  only  the  legal  form  of  righteousness  (x.,  5),  but  also  a 
righteousness  more  inward  and  spiritual  (x.,  6-8).  The 
first  quotation,  from  Leviticus  xviii.,  5,  does  not  imply 
the  impossibility  of  keeping  the  Law,  but  rather  assumes  the 
contrary.  But  it  refers  simply  to  outward  conduct,  and 
does  not  describe  that  righteousness  which  is  the  root  of  the 
Law,  and  can  alone  be  called  the  righteousness  of  God. 
The  following  quotation,  from  Deut.  xxx.,  11-14,  is  adapted 
by  Paul  to  his  own  purposes,  and  we  need  not  suppose  that 
the  parenthetical  explanations  are  intended  to  represent 
the  original  meaning  of  the  passage.     The  point  is  that  it 


X.,  9-  ROMANS  ZZZ 

describes  a  word  which  is  very  different  from  the  word  of  a 
statute-book.  It  is  worth  noticing,  though  this  part  is 
omitted  by  Paul,  that  in  Deut.  "  doing  "  is  as  clearly  men- 
tioned as  in  the  previous  quotation  ;  but  the  order  in  which 
it  occurs  is  reversed.  There  the  life  followed  the  doing,  as 
its  reward  ;  here  the  word  is  in  thy  heart  that  thou  mayest 
do  it.  The  whole  spirit  of  the  passage,  therefore,  is  adapted 
to  Paul's  purpose  ;  and  it  is  fairly  used  by  him  as  the  lan- 
guage of  the  righteousness  which  is  of  faith.  Observe  the 
personification,  a  figure  which  we  have  met  with  several 
times  before.' 

We  must  now  ask  why  Paul,  if  he  is  dealing  with  princi- 
ples, introduces  Christ.  One  reason  is  that  the  whole  in- 
quiry has  arisen  from  an  historical  difficulty,  the  rejection 
of  Christ  by  the  Jews,  and  the  consequent  opening  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God  to  the  Gentiles.  And  again,  as  in  verse  4, 
Christ  stands  for  the  embodiment  of  Divine  righteousness  in 
humanity,  and  was  the  historical  realisation  of  the  love,  and 
obedience,  and  cleaving  unto  God,  which  are  insisted  upon 
in  the  chapter  from  which  the  quotation  is  taken.  And 
lastly,  the  ancient  .saying  had  become  true  in  a  fuller  sense 
than  formerly.  It  was  not  now  necessary  to  look  up  to 
heaven  for  a  Christ  that  was  still  to  come,  or  dig  among  the 
graves  of  buried  wisdom  to  find  some  living  word.  Men  had 
seen  the  eternal  life,  which  death  could  not  hold,  and  never 
more  should  its  impression  be  effaced  from  the  human  soul. 
The  word  which  proclaimed  faith  in  these  sublime  realities 
was  not  far  off,  written  in  some  remote  title-deed,  but  in  each 
believer's  mouth  and  heart. 

Whether  we  translate  "  because''  or  "  that''  in  x.,  9,  the 
following  words  contain  a  broad  description  of  Christian  life 

'  A  rabbinical  interpretation  deduces  the  eternity  of  the  law  from 
this  passage :  none  of  it  has  been  left  in  heaven,  so  as  to  require 
another  Moses  to  arise,  and  bring  another  law  from  heaven  (Weber, 
///(/.  T/uol.,  p.  iSj. 


334  ROMANS  x.,  II,  12. 

and  faith,  thrown  into  this  special  form  to  suit  the  above 
quotation.  Here  at  last  Paul  seems  to  define  what  he  means 
by  faith,  and  he  throws  its  object  into  the  form  of  a  proposi- 
tion, which  announces  simply  that  God  raised  Jesus  from  the 
dead.  This,  however,  does  not  invalidate  the  explanation 
which  we  have  hitherto  given  of  the  word  faith  ;  for  from 
time  to  time  Paul  isolates  some  special  point  in  the  contents 
of  faith  for  closer  consideration.  Thus  in  iv.,  24,  he  makes 
it  consist  in  believing  "  on  Him  that  raised  Jesus  our  Lord 
from  the  dead,"  a  belief  akin  to  that  referred  to  here,  but 
larger,  rising  from  the  single  fact  to  the  quickening  power 
of  Him  to  whom  the  fact  was  due.  But  no  doubt  he  selected 
what  seemed  to  him  of  vital  importance.  The  confession 
of  Christ  before  a  hostile  world,  and  the  belief  in  his  im- 
mortal life,  carried  with  them  all  the  depth  and  power  of  that 
spiritual  confidence  in  Divine  things  which  he  summarises 
under  the  word  faith.  In  those  days  the  decisive  step  of 
acknowledging  the  Crucified  as  Lord  in  a  sense  far  transcend- 
ing the  lordship  of  the  Caesars  required  an  enthusiasm  of 
conviction  which  saved  men  by  lifting  them  out  of  their  old 
life  into  the  communion  of  the  immortal  children  of  God. 
We  must  not  leave  this  verse  without  remarking  on  the  grand 
simplicity  of  the  Apostolic  terms  of  salvation,  from  which 
most  of  the  doctrines  insisted  upon  in  later  times  as  the  es- 
sentials of  Christianity  are  entirely  absent. 

The  principle  thus  laid  down  was  not  limited  by  race,  and 
Paul  now  reverts  (x.,  Il)  to  the  quotation  of  ix.,  33,  in  order 
to  call  attention  to  its  universality.  The  connection  may  be 
thus  given  : — I  am  justified  in  making  the  above  broad  state- 
ment about  salvation,  for  the  Scripture,  in  the  passage  which 
I  have  quoted,  has  no  limiting  clause. 

The  same  Loi'd  is  Lord  of  all  (x.,  12). — It  is  commonly 
assumed  that  the  Lord  here  is  Jesus,  since  the  term  is 
applied  to  him  in  verse  9.  This  argument  does  not  seem  to 
me  convincing  ;  for  there  is  a  transition  of  thought  in  verse 


X.,  13.  ROMANS  335 

1 1  which  carries  us  back  to  the  end  of  the  last  chapter,  and 
great  confusion  is  introduced  into  the  qnotation  from  Isaiah 
by  referring  the  word  to  Christ.  According  to  that  quota- 
tion the  Lord  God  lays  in  Zion  a  stone  ;  and,  in  Paul's 
interpretation,  those  who  trusted  in  this  stone  should  not 
be  ashamed.  This  suggests  the  idea  that  those  who  trusted 
in  that  stone  should,  on  that  sole  condition,  experience  the 
mercy  of  Him  who  laid  it,  and  who  is  rich  towards  all,  with- 
out distinction,  who  maj^  call  upon  Him.  But  in  the  inter- 
pretation the  stone  becomes  Christ,  who  must  therefore  be 
distinguished  from  the  Lord  God  ;  whereas  the  ordinary 
view  represents  Christ  as  being  both  the  stone  and  Him  who 
laid  it  ;  quite  contrary  to  the  sense  of  the  original  passage. 
I  am  therefore  of  opinion  that  the  word  "  Lord  "  here  refers 
to  God,  and  that  it  is  employed  simply  because  it  is  the 
word  adopted  by  the  Lxx.  in  the  passages  which  arc  quoted. 
We  must  remem]:»er  that  the  Gentiles  had  to  learn  from  the 
Gospel  to  call  upon  the  name  of  God,  and  that  believing  on 
Him  was  for  them,  in  form  as  well  as  substance,  a  new  ex- 
perience.    Also  compare  iii.,  29,  30. 

The  quotation  from  Joel  ii.,  32  (x.,  13)  serves  to  express  a 
universal  truth,  though  in  the  prophet  it  is  of  more  limited 
application.  We  must  observe  how  completely  free  the 
Apostle  is  from  the  fetters  of  dogmatism.  Here  he  accepts  a 
statement  of  the  conditions  of  salvation  which  is  totally 
different  in  form  from  that  which  he  presented  onl)'  a  few 
lines  back.  He  accepts  as  sufficient  the  most  universal 
ground  of  simple  piety  that  it  is  pq^ssible  to  discover.  This 
is  confirmatory  of  our  whole  line  of  exposition. 

The  following  passage  (x.,  14-21)  shows  that  the  application  of 
the  spiritual  law  which  has  been  just  set  forth  is  not  prevented  by 
mere  ignorance,  for  to  Gentile  and  Jew^  alike  the  Gospel  has  been 
preached,  and  the  present  acceptance  of  it  by  the  one  and  rejec- 
tion of  it  by  the  other  have  been  clearly  described  in  the  ancient 
Scriptures. 


336  ROMANS  x.,  14-16. 

Hoiv  then  shall  they  call  07i  him  in  whom  they  have  not  be- 
lieved f  (x.,  14). — If  we  have  understood  the  previous  context 
correctly,  the  person  referred  to  must  be  God.  This  is  still 
more  obvious  from  the  sequel  ;  for  it  is  clearly  God  who  is 
found  of  tho.se  who  sought  Him  not,  and  stretches  forth  His 
hands  to  Israel.  It  may  be  objected  that  the  Jews  at  least 
had  faith  in  God.  But  this  was  not  so  in  the  Christian 
view  :  they  had  neither  heard  His  voice  at  any  time,  nor  seen 
His  form  (John  v.,  37)  ;  in  Paul's  language,  they  had  not 
faith.  A  self-confident  dogmatism  is  only  the  sorry  counter- 
feit of  faith.  In  order  to  have  faith  men  must  have  heard 
the  voice  of  God  within  their  own  hearts  ;  and  in  order  to 
hear  this  voice  they  must  catch  the  tones  of  awakened  faith 
in  the  speech  of  another. 

How  shall  they  pj^each  except  they  be  sent  f  (x.,  15). — Unless 
an  inner  word  of  God  send  them  with  imperative  command, 
they  cannot  so  preach  as  to  bow  down  the  conscience  before 
a  new-found  holiness,  or  fire  the  heart  with  spiritual  emotion. 
The  language  which  Isaiah  (Hi.,  7)  uses  in  regard  to  the  re- 
turn from  the  captivity  occurs  to  Paul's  mind  as  applicable 
to  the  present  deliverance  from  spiritual  servitude.  We  need 
not  suppose  that  he  looked  upon  this  and  the  succeeding 
quotations  as  predictions  of  the  particular  events  of  his  own 
time,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  that  he  merely  wished  to  express 
his  own  thoughts  in  well-known  language.  Words  are  often 
used  in  relation  to  special  circumstances,  which  nevertheless 
embody  a  universal  principle,  and  hence  become  full  of 
illumination  for  analogous  circumstances  which  were  not 
originally  contemplated. 

There  is  now  a  transition  in  the  thought  (x.,  16).  The 
sentiment  has  been  full  of  joy,  resulting  from  the  compre- 
hensiveness of  the  announced  conditions.  But  there  is 
another  side  to  the  picture.  The  conditions  are  indeed  uni- 
versal ;  but  nevertheless  they  are  conditions,  which  may  be 
accepted  or  rejected,  and  in  fact  the  rejection  of  the  glad 


X.,  17-21.  ROMANS  337 

tidings  by  the  Jews  is  clue  to  a  "  disobedient  and  gainsay- 
ing" spirit  which  has  run  through  all  their  history.  It  was 
true  in  the  time  of  Isaiah  (liii.,  i)  that  they  would  not  be- 
lieve what  they  heard.  So  it  was  now.  They  had  heard 
the  word  of  Christ  through  his  preachers  (x.,  17),  calling 
them  as  the  prophets  had  called,  to  a  nobler  faith.  Wherever 
they  were  scattered  over  the  world  the  voice  of  the  preacher 
had  addressed  them  (x.,  18).  And  they  could  not  plead 
ignorance  ;  for  as  long  ago  as  the  time  of  Moses  (Dent. 
xxxii.,  20,  21)  they  were  warned  that  if  they  moved  God  to 
jealousy  with  that  which  was  not  God,  He  would  move 
them  to  jealousy  with  those  who  were  not  a  people  (x.,  19). 
So  at  the  present  time  they  saw  Gentiles  pressing  into  the 
Kingdom  of  God,  and  cleaving  to  Him  with  a  faith  to  which 
they  themselves  had  become  strangers.  It  was  the  same  in 
the  days  of  Isaiah  (Ixv.,  i,  2).  The  careless  heathen  had 
found  God  (x.,  20)  ;  but  Israel  had  refused  to  listen  to  the 
Divine  pleading  (x.,  2l).  Let  us  try  for  a  moment  to  appre- 
hend the  grandeur  and  originality  of  the  thought.  Here  we 
have  the  image  of  One  who  seeks  to  make  His  name  known 
throughout  all  the  earth,  and  sends  His  messengers  to  the 
ends  of  the  world,  One  who  stretches  out  beseeching  hands 
to  the  sinner,  and  often  comes  even  to  the  indifferent  with 
such  visions  of  glory  that  the  dead  soul  treml)les  into  unex- 
pected life.  Such  is  the  vision  of  Christian  faith,  invisible 
only  to  those  who  have  been  blinded  by  their  endeavours  to 
establish  their  own  righteousness.  To  Him  who  is  in  Christ 
Jesus  GcntiL-  and  Jew,  Christian  and  pagan,  are  no  more  ; 
the  sects  are  lost  in  the  Church  of  the  children  of  God,  who, 
in  the  spirit  of  Christ,  listen  in  faith  to  the  Hving  word 
within  and  feel  that  nothing  but  their  own  self-willed  pride 
and  want  of  submission  can  separate  them  from  that  infinite 
Love  which  has  chosen  all  men  for  itself,  though  all  have  not 
obeyed. 

The  train  of  reflection  in  the  last  few  verses  might  seem  to  im- 


338  ROMANS  xi.,  2-7. 

ply  that  God  had  finally  cast  off  His  people  ;  and  Paul,  to  whom  as 
himself  an  Israelite  such  a  thought  was  abhorrent,  proceeds  to 
show  that  this  was  not  the  case  ;  for,  first,  to  resume  the  position 
of  chapter  ix.,  there  was  a  select  remnant  (xi.,  i-io). 

God  had  not  chosen  His  people  without  foreknowledge, 
and  therefore  could  not  cast  them  off  (xi,,  2).  It  was  the 
old  story.  As  in  the  days  of  Elijah  seven  thousand  had  re- 
mained faithful  (xi.,  2-4),  so  it  was  now.  There  was  a  rem- 
nant, while  the  mass  of  the  people  had  lost  their  spiritual 
discernment,  so  that  to  them  might  once  more  be  applied  the 
words  of  Isaiah  (xxix.,  10,  combined  with  Deut.  xxix.,  3,  4) 
and  of  David  (Psalm  Ixix.,  23,  24). 

If  it  is  by  grace,  it  is  no  more  of  ivorks  (xi.,  6). — If  the  peo- 
ple were  rejected  for  their  disobedience,  nevertheless  the 
remnant  were  not  chosen  as  a  reward  for  any  meritorious 
works.  Faith  itself,  in  its  lower  and  higher  stages,  the 
initial  point  of  all  spiritual  life,  is  a  gift,  which  we  may  in- 
deed forfeit,  but  cannot  earn.  Responsibility  is  connected 
with  problems  that  are^zV<?w,  and  is  confined  to  the  spiritual 
plain  to  which  only  the  grace  of  God  can  lift  us.  Man  is  not 
responsible  for  being  human  and  not  angelic  ;  but  he  is  re- 
sponsible when  he  is  brutal  and  not  hmnan ;  for  our  humanity 
is  a  gift,  and  determines  the  nature  of  our  duty.  The  same 
truth  holds  good  of  the  various  degrees  of  spiritual  elevation 
and  insight. 

The  rest  zvere  hardened  (xi.,  7). — The  word  "  hardened  " 
here  differs  from  that  in  ix.,  18,  and  refers  less  to  obstinacy 
than  to  an  intellectual  obtuseness.  Compare  Mark  vi.,  52, 
viii.,  17  ;  John  xii.,  40  ;  2  Cor.  iii.,  14,  where  the  context 
makes  the  meaning  plain. 

In  his  usual  manner  Paul  now  resumes  in  another  form  the  ques- 
tion with  which  he  started  in  verse  i,  in  order  to  return  a  different 
answer  :  the  lapse  of  the  nation  was  temporary,  and,  while  it  lasted, 
it  was  made  contributory  to  the  merciful  designs  of  Providence  (xi., 
11-32). 


xi.,  11-28.  ROMANS  339 

As  an  historical  fact,  the  preaching  to  the  Gentiles  was 
largely  due  to  the  opposition  which  the  Jews  offered  to  the 
Christian  preachers.  The  latter  were  forced  to  turn  to  those 
who  would  listen  to  them,  and  the  logic  of  events  made  the 
Church  conscious  of  its  world-wide  calling.  But  when  this 
purpose  was  accomplished,  and  the  Gentile  harvest  was 
gathered  in,  the  partial  hardening  of  Israel  would  pass  away, 
and  the  complete  nation  would  once  more  contribute  to  the 
world's  riches  out  of  the  fulness  of  its  spiritual  life.  Such 
was  Paul's  vision  of  the  course  of  history-,  which  he  must 
have  expected  to  be  realised  at  no  distant  date,  when  Christ 
would  return,  and  reign  over  a  regenerated  world. 

By  their  fall  {yi\.^  II). — This  is  a  most  unfortunate  trans- 
lation ;  for  Paul  has  just  stated  in  effect  that  the  Jews  did 
not  fall,  but  only  stumbled.  The  word  elsewhere  is  trans- 
lated "  trespass,"  and  always  denotes  the  wilful  violation  of 
a  commandment.  Here  it  naturally  refers  to  the  disobedience 
alluded  to  in  x.,  21. 

In  the  remainder  of  the  passage  the  Gentiles  are  specially 
addressed,  and  warned  not  to  be  arrogant  towards  the  Jewish 
race.  After  all,  they  were  only  grafted  on  to  the  stem  of 
Israel  ;  and  if  some  of  the  branches  were  broken  off  by  their 
unbelief,  this  was  not  a  reason  for  exultation,  but  for  fear  ; 
for  Gentiles  too  might  fall,  and  the  natural  branches  once 
more  be  grafted  in. 

If  thou  continue  in  his  goodness  (xi.,  22). — Note  once  more 
the  conditional  character  of  the  Divine  gifts.  We  cannot 
create  them,  but  may  necessitate  their  withdrawal. 

Mystery  (xi.,  25),  a  hidden  truth,  which  may  be  plain  to 
more  advanced  minds.  Here  it  refers  to  the  secret  meaning 
of  Israel's  rejection.  That  rejection  really  affected  only  a 
portion  of  the  people,  and  it  was  to  last  only  till  the  entire 
bod}'  of  Gentiles  came  in  ;  and  then  all  Israel  would  be 
saved.     So  Isaiah  had  foretold  (lix.,  20,  21,  and  xxvii.,  g). 

They  are  enemies     .     .     .     they  are  beloved  (xi.,  28). — It  is 


340  ROMANS  xi.,  29-32. 

said  that  on  account  of  the  antithesis  "  enemies"  must  be 
understood  in  a  passive  sense  :  "  hated  by  God."  But  you 
cannot  both  hate  and  love  a  man  at  the  same  time,  though 
you  may  be  obliged,  on  certain  grounds,  to  treat  as  an  enemy 
one  whom,  on  other  grounds,  you  love.  I  think  we  shall 
reach  the  true  sense  if  we  subordinate  the  active  sense  of 
hostile  (though  that  is  included),  and  understand  the  state- 
ment thus  : — in  relation  to  the  Gospel  which  they  have  re- 
jected, they  are  looked  upon  as  enemies,  in  order  that  the 
Gentiles  may  be  drawn  in  ;  but  as  regards  the  Divine  election 
of  Israel,  they  are  beloved  for  the  sake  of  their  fathers,  and 
as  the  purpose  of  God  cannot  change,  and  He  does  not  repent 
of  bestowing  His  gifts  (xi.,  29),  the  estrangement  must  be 
temporary.  There  was  a  Jewish  doctrine  that  the  Israelites, 
having  fallen  into  sin  through  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf, 
were  allowed,  owing  to  the  merit  of  their  fathers,  to  remain 
the  people  of  God.' 

God  hath  shut  up  all  unto  disobedience  (xi.,  32). — This  can 
hardly  mean  that  God  makes  all  men  disobedient  ;  for  that 
would  be  a  self-contradictory  proposition.  But  men  being 
in  fact  disobedient,  God  has  shut  up  all  alike  in  disobedience, 
as  in  a  prison  (see  Gal.  iii.,  22,  23),  making  no  difference  in 
that  respect  between  Jew  and  Gentile,  that  all,  having  the 
same  need,  may  experience  the  same  compassion. 

The  great  argument  closes  with  a  burst  of  adoring  praise  (xi,, 
33-36),  in  which  glory  is  ascribed  to  God  alone,  the  source  and  the 
end  of  all  that  moral  discipline  and  providential  leading  by  which 
the  whole  family  of  man  is  to  be  gathered  home  into  the  Divine  love. 

The  doctrinal  portion  of  the  Epistle  being  concluded,  we  pass  on 
to  its  ethical  application  (xii.,  i-xv.,  13). 

This  larger  section  falls  into  two  well-marked  divisions, 
the  first  dealing  with  universal  rules  of  duty  (xii.,  3-xiii., 
14),  and  the  second  referring  especially  to  the  mutual  duties 

'  Weber,  Jud.  T/ieoL,  pp.  274  sqq. 


xii.,  1-5.  ROMANS  34^ 

of  different  parties  in  the  Church  (xiv.,  i-xv.,  13).  The 
first  two  verses,  which  have  not  been  mentioned  in  this 
partition  of  the  subject,  lay  down  the  general  principle  of 
Christian  conduct. 

Paul,  having  traced  the  course  of  events  to  the  Divine  pity,  sets 
before  us,  in  accordance  writh  this  view,  the  principle  of  action  in 
the  new  life  of  faith  (xii.,  i,  2).  Its  motive  lies  in  the  apprehension 
of  God's  "mercies,"  His  feelings  of  compassion  towards  us;  its 
essence,  in  the  offering  of  ourselves  as  a  holy  sacrifice  to  God,  and 
the  transformation  and  renewal  of  our  minds  in  accordance  with  His 
will. 

Your  reasonable  service  (xii.,  l). — "  Service  "  relates  to  the 
temple- worship  ;  and  "reasonable"  means  "belonging  to 
the  reason,"  in  contrast  with  outward  ceremonial.  Nothing 
could  be  more  natural  than  to  borrow  figures  from  the  es- 
tablished ritual  ;  and  in  a  case  where  their  own  bodies  are 
concerned  commentators  are  content  with  a  metaphorical 
explanation.  In  the  carl)*  Christian  assemblies  praise  and 
prayer  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  offerings;  and  here  Paul 
would  extend  the  underlying  and  spiritual  meaning  of  sacri- 
fice to  our  own  persons,  and  to  every  part  of  our  lives. 

This  7Lvr/d  (xii.,  2)  ;  rather,  "  this  age,"  referring  to  the 
Jewish  division  of  time  into  the  present  and  the  future  age, 
divided  from  one  another  l)y  the  advent  of  the  Messiah. 

Paul  deals,  first,  with  the  personal  intercourse  of  Chrisjtians  with 
one  another  (xii.,  3-17^). 

A  measure  of  faith  (xii.,  3).— This  expression  shows  once 
more  that  faith  was  not  mere  belief  in  either  a  fact  or  a 
proposition.  It  had  various  grades,  and  ramified  in  various 
directions.  In  some  it  was  bold  and  venturous  ;  in  others  it 
was  timid  and  conservative.  In  some  it  was  luminous  upon 
this  point,  in  others  upon  that. 

One  body  in  Christ  (xii  ,  5). — This  figure  is  worked  out 
nuich  more  fully  in  i  Cor.  xii.     It  admirably  expresses  the 


542 


ROMANS  xii.,  6-14. 


subordination  of  each  member  to  the  good  of  the  whole 
spiritual  communitj',  from  which  its  own  vitality  was  fed, 
and  to  which  it  owed  the  unselfish  discharge  of  its  appropri- 
ate function.  Everyone  had  his  own  particular  gift,  the 
result  of  Divine  grace,  and  this  was  to  be  used,  not  with 
haughty  self-satisfaction,  but  with  that  soundness  and  so- 
briety of  mind  which  we  describe  as  judgment  and  good 
sense. 

Prophecy  (xii.,  6),  the  gift  of  inspired  utterance  of  spiritual 
themes.  MinisUy  (xii.,  7),  the  administration  of  funds,  for 
helping  the  poor  and  the  sick.  Teaching  (xii.,  7),  the  regu- 
lar instruction  of  the  less  advanced  in  Christian  truth.  He 
that  rtdcth  (xii.,  8),  perhaps  the  president  of  a  congregation 
or  of  any  other  body  ;  possibly  the  patron  of  poor  de- 
pendents. 

The  Lord  (xii.,  II). — This  naturally  refers  to  Christ  as  the 
animating  soul  of  the  entire  body,  or  the  Master  to  whom  all 
Christian  service  is  due.  We  should  expect  this  precept  to 
dominate  the  whole  section,  instead  of  appearing  as  one  of 
many  miscellaneous  injunctions  ;  but  the  thought  flows  forth 
without  any  very  clear  line  of  suggestion.  As  is  stated  in 
the  margin  of  the  Revised  Version,  "  some  ancient  authori- 
ties read  the  opportunity^'"  the  two  Greek  words  being  written 
in  a  very  similar  manner. 

Bless  them  that  persecute  yori  (xii.,  14). — This  most  natur- 
ally refers  to  persons  outside  the  Church  ;  but  from  its  posi- 
tion we  should  expect  it  to  apply  to  the  conduct  of  Christians 
towards  one  another.  Yet  if  the  latter  were  intended,  some 
advice  would  surely  be  given  to  the  persecutors.  The 
thought  may  be  suggested  by  contrast  with  "  the  saints  "  : — 
not  ovAy  to  be  hospitable  to  your  fellow-believers,  but  extend 
your  blessing  to  those  who  persecute  you. 

We  now  pass  almost  imperceptibly  into  the  second  subdivision, 
which  relates  to  the  conduct  of  Christians  towards  the  outer  world 
(xii.,  I7t>-xiii.,  10). 


xii.,  i7b-20.  ROMANS  343 

First,  we  must  exhibit  a  peaceful  attitude  towards  the  in- 
justice of  the  world  (xii.,  I7''-2I). 

Give  place  tmto  -wrath  (xii.,  19). — "  Wrath  "  is  a  technical 
word  with  Paul  ;  and  the  context  shows  that  the  reference  is 
not  to  our  own  anger,  but  to  the  punitive  action  of  God,  to 
which  our  resentment  must  give  place,  as  He  alone  can  judge 
with  perfect  justice. 

It  is  wntten  (xii.,  19),  in  Deut.  xxxii.,  35,  more  nearly  in 
the  Hebrew  than  in  the  lxx. 

Thoii  shall  heap  coals  of  fire  upon  his  head  (xii.,  20). — This 
verse  is  cited  from  Proverbs  xxv.,  21,  22.  The  figure  sug- 
gests something  painful  ;  but  it  is  obvious  from  the  context 
that  the  infliction  of  pain  is  not  the  object.  The  best  ex- 
planation seems  to  be  that  which  refers  it  to  the  burning 
sense  of  shame  which  is  kindled  by  kind  and  gentle  conduct, 
and  which  leads  to  repentance  and  reconciliation. 

From  the  general  principles  of  Christian  conduct  we  now 
proceed  to  the  particular  duty  of  loyal  submission  to  the 
constituted  authorities  in  the  state  (xiii.,  1-7)-  There  must 
have  been  some  special  reason  for  enforcing  so  obvious  a  re- 
quirement. The  proclamation  of  a  Kingdom  of  God  was  not 
only  suited  to  arouse  the  jealous}'  of  the  ruling  powers,  and 
to  afford  a  plea  for  persecution,  but  may  have  sometimes  pro- 
duced a  dangerous  ferment  among  the  more  excitable  spirits 
in  the  Christian  community.  At  Thessalonica  the  preachers 
of  the  Gospel  were  charged  with  acting  "  contrary  to  the 
decrees  of  Caesar,  saying  that  there  is  another  king,  one 
Jesus"  (Acts  xvii.,  7),  and  Jesus  himself  had  been  put  to 
death  on  a  charge  of  treason.  The  new  religion,  moreover, 
required  the  believers  to  separate  themselves  from  all  idola- 
trous practices,  and  therefore  to  withdraw  from  a  large  part 
of  the  social  life  around  them  ;  and  this  in  itself  would  excite 
suspicion  of  revolutionary  designs  and  secret  conspiracy.  It 
was  therefore  necessary  to  be  peculiarly  scrupulous  in  the 
fulfihnent  of  civic  duties,  and  to  hold  in  check  the  more 


344  ROMANS  xiii.,  4-8. 

fanatical  minds  who  might  have  wished  to  precipitate  a  po- 
litical crisis.  Paul  himself  believed  that  the  outlying  world 
was  under  the  dominion  of  an  evil  principle,  and  we  must 
admire  all  the  more  the  large  and  balanced  judgment  which 
recognised  a  Divine  ordinance  as  the  basis  of  civil  society, 
and  insisted  on  keeping  the  new  movement  strictly  within 
the  spiritual  realm.  If  any  think  it  strange  that  Paul  should 
write  thus  in  the  time  of  Nero,  we  must  remember  that  the 
Epistle  was  composed  during  those  early  j'ears,  so  full  of 
promise,  when  the  savage  character  of  the  tyrant  had  not  yet 
displayed  itself 

A  ini?iistcr  of  God  (xiii.,  4). — The  word  here  translated 
"  minister,"  one  who  acts  as  the  servant  of  another  to  ad- 
minister his  affairs,  is  used  technically  of  the  deacons  in  the 
Church.  The  word  with  the  same  translation  in  verse  6  is 
different,  and  means  one  who  discharges  a  public  duty.  It 
is  specially  applied,  but  not  limited,  to  a  priesthood. 

A71  avenger  for  icrath  (xiii.,  4)  ;  that  is,  he  executes  the 
punitive  judgment  of  God  against  the  evil-doer. 

The  following  verses  relate  to  general  social  intercourse 
(xiii.,  8-10).  There  is  a  verbal  connection  with  the  seventh 
verse  in  the  Greek,  which  is  lost  in  the  translation.  We 
may  represent  it  thus  : — "  Render  to  all  what  you  owe  :  owe 
no  man  anything  but  love." 

Hath  fulfilled  the  lazu  (xiii.,  8). — "  Law"  is  without  the 
article  in  Greek,  so  that  the  phrase  is  equivalent  to  "  has 
fulfilled  all  the  requirements  of  law."  Although  the  follow- 
ing examples  are  naturally  drawn  from  the  law  of  Moses,  the 
connection  of  thought  demands  the  wider  sense  :  love  pays 
all  lawful  debts,  not  only  to  rulers,  but  to  your  neighbours. 
This  confirms  our  interpretation  of  the  general  doctrine  of 
the  Epistle.  When  the  righteousness  of  God,  of  which  the 
essence  is  love,  takes  possession  of  the  heart,  the  command- 
ments become  obsolete,  for  they  are  fulfilled  through  the 
spontaneous  energy  of  the  indwelling  life. 


xiii.,  11-14.  ROMANS  345 

These  more  general  admonitions  close  with  an  exhortation  to 
personal  purity,  founded  on  the  nearness  of  the  expected  day  (xiii., 
11-14). 

Salvation  (xiii.,  Il)  is  here  used  of  perfect  security,  a  fiual 
deliverance  from  the  evils  of  the  present  age. 

77/6'  day  is  at  hand  (xiii.,  12).— This  is  one  of  the  many 
evidences  of  Paul's  belief  in  the  speedy  establishment  of  the 
Messianic  reign.  He  uses  this  as  a  reason  for  following  the 
course  of  conduct  which  need  not  be  ashamed  to  appear  in 

the  open  day. 

Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (xiii.,  14).— This  expressive 
figure  is  used  also  in  Gal.  iii.,  27,  where,  however,  the  put- 
ting on  of  Christ  is  represented  as  having  taken  place  at  the 
tim'e  of  baptism.  This  shows  once  more  how  little  Paul  is 
bound  by  the  rigid  phraseology  of  dogmatism.  Spiritual 
life  moves  from  grace  to  grace. 

A  section  now  follows  which  sets  forth  the  principles  that  ought 
to  be  observed  by  different  parties  in  the  Church  towards  one 
another  (xiv.,  i-xv.,  13). 

The  directions  are  so  pointed  and  so  earnest  that  Paul  was 
probably  aware  of  some  circumstances  in  Rome  which  ren- 
dered the  admonition  desirable.     It  is  clear  that  the  bulk  of 
the  Church  held  the  freest  possible  position.     They  were 
ready  to  eat  everything,  and  placed  every  day  upon  the  same 
level.     They  were  sure  that  nothing  was  unclean  of  itself, 
and  vaunted  their  faith  which  made  them  superior  to  silly 
scruples.     On  the  other  hand  there  were  men  who   were 
addicted  to  an  ascetic  life  or  the .  observance  of  particular 
days.     To  what  extent  these  formed  a  party  it  is  impossible 
to  say  ;  but  men  of  similar  tendencies  would  naturally  draw 
together,  and  the  admonition  to  receive  one  another  (xv.,  7) 
indicates  at  least  the  danger  of  division.      It  is  generally 
assumed  that  these  "  weak  "  men  were  Jews,  and  this  view 
is  supported  by  the  reference  to  Jews  and  Gentiles  at  the  end 


346  ROMANS  xiv.,  i-p. 

of  the  discussion ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  certain,  for  the  ascetic 
tendency  existed  far  beyond  the  confines  of  Judaism.  What- 
ever the  precise  facts  may  have  been,  the  principles  laid 
down  remain  equally  clear  and  important,  and  admit  of  wide 
application.  The  plea  for  brotherly  communion  is  supported 
by  two  main  arguments.  First,  we  must  not  interfere  with 
the  private  convictions  of  others,  because  we  are  all  im- 
mediately responsible  to  the  supreme  Judge  (xiv.,  1-12). 
Secondly,  the  conduct  complained  of  is  a  violation  of  Christ- 
ian love  (xiv.,  13-XV.,  13).  This  forbids  us  to  give  need- 
less offence;  but  we  do  so  when  we  fail  to  respect  the  scruples 
of  a  brother.  We  may  virtually  destro}-  him  in  one  of  two 
ways  :  by  driving  him  out  of  the  Church  through  his  repug- 
nance to  our  apparent  laxity  (xiv.,  13-18);  by  inducing  him 
to  act  against  his  scruples,  while  his  conscience  is  not  con- 
vinced (xiv.,  19-23).  We  further  violate  love  when  we  do 
not  use  our  strength  for  the  benefit  of  the  weak  in  accordance 
with  Christ's  example  (xv.,  1-13). 

Not  to  doubtful  disputations  (xiv.,  l),  literally,  not  with  a 
view  to  decisions  of  thoughts,  which  probabl}^  means,  not  to 
pass  judgment  on  the  thoughts  of  the  brother  weak  in  faith. 

God  hath  received  him  (xiv.,  3).— Whom  God  has  received 
we  are  bound  to  receive,  and  have  no  right  to  exclude  others 
through  personal  dislike  or  owing  to  conscientious  differences 
of  opinion  or  practice.  A  church  of  God  must  act  in  accord- 
ance with  the  judgments  of  God,  or  it  sinks  to  the  level  of  a 
private  club. 

The  Lord  (xiv.,  4). — Throughout  this  passage  (except  in 
the  quotation  in  verse  11)  I  think  "the  Lord"  denotes 
Christ.  This  appears  from  verse  9.  Whatever  differences 
there  may  be,  all  disciples  alike  are  servants  of  Christ's  and 
act,  according  to  their  several  convictions,  in  reference  to 
him.  Living  or  dead,  they  are  his,  and  ought  to  form  one 
fellowship  in  him. 

To  this  end  (xiv.,  9). — Observe  how  Christ's  lordship  is 


xiv.,  lo-xv.,  3.  ROMANS  347 

represented  as  acquired  b}^  his  death  and  resurrection.  Com- 
pare Philip,  ii.,  9-1 1. 

The  judgment-scat  of  God  {yi\v.^  lO). — In  2  Cor.  v.,  10,  we 
read  "  the  judgment-.seat  of  Christ."  This  is  explained  by 
the  statement  in  Rom.  ii.,  16,  that  God  will  judge  the  secrets 
of  men  through  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  speech  of  Paul,  in 
Acts  xvii.,  31,  that  God  will  judge  the  world  b}^  the  man 
whom  He  has  ordained.  Here,  as  he  is  about  to  quote  from 
Isaiah  xlv.,  23,  he  refers  only  to  the  supreme  Judge,  without 
reference  to  His  agent. 

Am  persuaded  in  the  Lord  Jesus  (xiv.,  14),  that  is,  as  being 
in  comnmnion  with  Christ,  or,  as  we  might  saj',  I  am  con- 
vinced as  a  Christian. 

Happy  is  he  that  judgeth  not  himself  in  that  zchieh  he  ap- 
proveth  (xiv.,  22). — This  must  refer  to  the  danger  of  doing 
that  which  is  not  clearly  sanctioned  by  conscience.  The 
man  of  strong  faith  is  Inppy  if  his  conscience  is  perfectl}^ 
satisfied  with  the  freedom  of  his  conduct. 

Is  condemned  (■x.W.y  23),  liternlly,  "  has  been  condemned," 
that  is,  by  his  conduct  ;  as  we  might  say,  his  conduct  is 
reprehen.sible. 

Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin  (xiv.,  23). — This  means 
that  whatever  a  man  does  against  his  conviction  of  what  is 
right  is  sin,  although  the  act,  considered  in  the  abstract,  may 
be  perfectly  innocent.  From  the  use  of  "  faith  "  in  this 
chapter  we  learn  that  it  implies  a  deep  and  living  persuasion  ; 
that,  when  sufficiently  strong,  it  lifts  one  to  the  spiritual 
point  of  view  of  Christ  himself,  in  which  merel}-  outward 
and  ceremonial  distinctions  disappear  :  that  it  may  be  ade- 
quate to  produce  a  genuine  Christian  life,  and  yet  not  strong 
enough  to  raise  one  above  all  unnecessarj'  scruples. 

Bear  the  infirmities  (xv.,  l). — In  coiniection  with  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ  compare  Matt,  viii.,  17. 

Christ  pleased  not  himself  (yiv.,  3). — This  appeal  to  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ,  without  reference  to  any  particular  event, 


348  ROMANS  xv.,  5-13. 

implies  some  knowledge  of  his  life  on  the  part  of  the  readers. 
We  can  hardly  doubt  that  his  life  and  teaching  formed  part 
of  the  regular  instruction  in  the  churches.  The  quotation  is 
from  Ps.  Ixix.,  9. 

According  to  Christ  Jesus  (xv.,  5) !  as  we  might  say,  agree- 
ably to  our  Christian  profession.  But  Paul's  phrase  is  more 
expressive. 

Glorify  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  fcsus  Christ  (xv., 
6). — As  Christ's  object  was  to  bring  men  to  God,  as  God  was 
the  supreme  object  of  Christian  faith,  so  to  glorify  God  was 
the  chief  end  of  Christian  conduct.  Where  that  end  is 
steadily  pursued,  unity  is  the  result.  Our  quarrels  spring 
from  our  seeking  a  variety  of  lower  ends,  and  from  a  secret 
love  of  our  own  glory. 

Minister  of  the  circumcision  (xv.,  8). — This  is  no  concession 
tojudaising  Christianity,  but  states  the  historical  fact  that 
Christ  lived  and  taught  among  the  Jews. 

Protnises,  mercy  (xv.,  8,  9).  There  is  no  opposition  be- 
tween these,  as  though  the  Jews  had  a  claim  upon  God, 
while  the  Gentiles  were  wholly  dependent  on  His  compassion ; 
for  the  promise  was  itself  an  act  of  grace,  and,  like  grace, 
stands  in  antithesis  to  the  law  (see  Rom.  iv.,  13  sqg.  ;  Gal. 
iii.,  16  sqg.),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Gentiles  were  in- 
cluded in  the  promise  (Rom.  iv.,  17;  Gal.  iii.,  8,  14,  22,  29). 
The  difference,  therefore,  is  historical  :  the  promises  were 
made  to  the  fathers  of  Israel,  hnifor  the  world ;  and  therefore, 
although  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  was  for  all  alike,  yet 
the  recognition  of  God's  mercy  on  the  part  of  the  Gentiles 
was  something  new. 

As  it  is  written  (xv.,  9). — The  quotations  are  from  Psalm 
xviii.,  49  ;  Deut.  xxxii.,  43  ;  Psalm  cxvii.,  i  ;  and  Isaiah  xi., 
10. 

The  God  of  hope  (xv.,  13),  suggested  by  the  closing  word 
of  the  last  quotation.  Hope,  which  looks  to  the  future,  is 
twin  sister  of  faith,  which  reposes  in  the  present.     Joy  and 


XV.,  14-19-  ROMAA^S  349 

peace  wait  upon  them  ;  and  they  live  in  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  of  God.  With  this  beautiful  benediction  the 
hortatory  portion  of  the  Epistle  comes  to  a  close. 

Having  completed  the  main  subject  of  the  Epistle,  Paul  now  adds 
a  section  explaining  •why  he  has  ventured  to  admonish  the  Roman 
Christians,  and  referring  to  his  past  life  and  his  future  plans  (xv., 
14-33)- 

Filled  with  all  knowledge  (xv.,  14). — It  is  well  to  note  such 
hyperbolical  phrases,  as  they  show  what  an  insecure  basis  for 
dogma  is  furnished  by  oriental  style.  The  apolog\-  here 
made  refers,  I  believe,  only  to  the  advice  just  tendered  about 
the  strong  and  weak.  It  amoiuits  to  this  :  I  am  sure  you  do 
not  need  my  admonition,  and  that  you  have  yourselves  suffi- 
cient knowledge  to  guide  you  ;  but  as  the  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles  I  have  ventured  to  remind  you  of  the  principles  j'ou 
profess.     The  words  are  an  example  of  delicate  courtesy. 

A  minister,  7)iinisteri)io-  (xv.,  16). — The  noun  denotes 
properly  one  who  fulfils  a  public  office.  The  participle 
comes  from  a  different  root,  and  relates  to  one  who  dis- 
charges a  sacred  function. 

The  offering  up  of  the  Gentiles  (xv.,  16). — Observe  the 
sacrificial  figure. 

/  have  therefore  ?ny  glory  (xv.,  17). — There  may  be  here 
some  reminiscence  of  the  way  in  which  Paul  had  been  com- 
pelled to  defend  his  apostolic  authority  both  in  Galatia  and 
in  Corinth.  But  a  reference  to  his  labours  is  part  of  the  title 
which  he  pleads  to  advise  Gentiles,  and  at  the  same  time  is 
his  excuse  for  not  having  visited  Rome  at  an  earlier  date. 
The  view  that  he  is  excusing  himself  for  intending  to  visit 
Rome  seems  quite  contrary  to  the  clear  sense  of  the  passage. 

Signs  and  zvonders  (xv.,  19),  words  which  are  used  of 
miracles.  Only  miracles  of  healing,  such  as  frequently 
accompany  depth  of  religious  impression,  are  ascribed  to 
Paul.      He   refers   to   gifts   of  healing  as  existing  in  the 


350  ROMANS  xv.,  19-32. 

Church  (i  Cor.  xii.,  28),  but  gives  us  no  particulars  about 
himself. 

From  Jcrusalcfn,  and  roimd  about  even  unto  lUyricum  (xv., 
19). — He  is  referring,  not  to  the  initial  point  of  his  ministr}^ 
but  to  its  extent,  and  therefore  properly  selects  Jerusalem, 
where  we  know  from  Gal.  ii.,  2,  that  he  preached  his  Gospel. 
We  have  no  record  of  a  visit  to  Illyricum  ;  but  the  account 
in  Acts  is  sometimes  very  fragmentary,  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  there  is  room  for  a  visit  in  Acts  xx.,  i,  2. 

Fully  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ  (xv.,  19). — Another 
hyperbole,  meaning  that  no  other  promising  fields  were  open 
to  him. 

That  I  might  not  build  on  another  man' s  foundation  (xv., 
20). — This  had  been  his  ambition  in  the  east,  and  would 
naturally  contiime  to  be  so  in  the  west.  Nevertheless  he 
was  anxious  to  preach  in  Rome  (i.,  11,  15).  The  natural 
inference  is,  not  that  the  words  are  spurious,  but  that  the 
church  in  Rome  was  not  founded  by  any  particular  man,  but 
grew  up  gradually  from  the  influx  of  Christians  into  Rome, 
through  the  constant  communication  between  the  provinces 
and  the  capital. 

As  it  is  ivritten  (xv.,  2l). — The  quotation  is  from  Isaiah 
Hi.,  15. 

A  certain  contribution  for  the  poor  (xv.,  26). — This  is  re- 
ferred to  also  in  i  Cor.  xvi.,  1-4  ;  and  2  Cor.  viii.,  ix. 

That  I  may  be  delivered  (xv.,  31). — It  is  evident  that  Paul 
was  aware  of  the  great  danger  which  he  would  encounter  in 
visiting  Jerusalem,  and  was  doubtful  about  the  reception 
which  he  had  to  expect  even  from  "  the  saints."  We  may 
suppose  that  he  was  desirous  of  doing  all  he  could  to  secure 
the  good-will  of  the  mother  Church,  and  by  the  interchange 
of  friendly  offices  prevent  a  final  separation  between  Judaic 
and  Gentile  Christianity. 

Together  with  you  find  rest  (xv.,  32). — It  is  evident  through- 
put this  passage  what  complete  sympathy  Paul  expected  to 


XV.,  32.  ROMANS  351 

find  ill  Rome.  There  he  looked  for  a  haven  of  rest  and 
peace  after  his  stormy  controversies,  and  before  he  set  his 
face  towards  an  unknown  and  distant  land. 

In  a  few  kindly  lines  Phoebe  is  now  commended  to  the  hospitality 
of  the  Christians  in  Rome  (xvi.,  i,  2). 

She  was  a  servant  or  deaconess  of  the  church  at  Cenchreae, 
the  eastern  port  of  Corinth,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf.  She  had 
been  a  "  succourer,"  or  rather  patroness,  of  many,  receiving 
them  into  her  house,  and  caring  for  them.  Among  tho.se 
who  had  experienced  her  kindness  was  Paul  himself.  She 
was  probably  the  bearer  of  the  letter. 

This  commendation  is  followed  by  a  great  number  of  salutations 
(xvi.,  3-16). 

This  list  is  without  example  in  the  rest  of  Paul's  Epistles. 
The  reason  probably  is  that  in  writing  to  churches  where 
he  knew  all  the  members  it  would  have  been  invidious  to 
select  particular  names  ;  whereas  in  Rome  his  knowledge 
was  so  limited  that  he  was  able  to  send  a  greeting  to  all 
whom  he  knew  either  personally  or  by  reputation.  Aquila 
{vv.  3,  4)  was  a  Jew  of  Pontus,  who  had  settled  in  Rome, 
from  which  together  with  his  wife  Prisca  (or,  in  the  diminu- 
tive form,  Priscilla)  he  was  driven  by  the  decree  of  Claudius. 
They  repaired  to  Corinth,  where  they  became  attached  to 
Paul  (Acts  xviii.,  2).  With  him  they  proceeded  to  Kphesus, 
where  he  left  them  {ib.,  19  ;  i  Cor.  xvi.,  19).  We  do  not 
know  when  they  "  laid  down  their  own  necks"  for  Paul  ; 
but  it  may  have  been  during  the  riot  at  Ephesus,  and  the 
danger  to  which  they  were  exposed  may  have  furni.shed  the 
reason  which  induced  them  to  return  for  a  time  to  Rome. 
Subsequently  we  find  them  once  more  at  Ephesus  (2  Tim. 
iv.,  19).  There  is  no  record  of  the  impri.sonment  of  Androni- 
cus  and  Junias  along  with  Paul — one  more  evidence  of  the 
fragmentary  character  of  the  narrative  in  Acts.  They  were 
"  of  note  among  the  Apostles,"  a  term  used  in  a  wide  sense. 


352  ROMANS  xvi.,  16-23. 

of  those  wlio  were  sent  out  as  missionaries.  The  primitive 
apostolic  band  is  described  by  Paul  as  "  the  twelve  "  (i  Cor. 
XV.,  5).  Those  of  the  household  of  Aristobulus  and  of  Nar- 
cissus [yv.  10,  11)  were  probably  slaves  in  the  establish- 
ments of  wealthy  men.  It  is  probable  that  a  large  number 
of  the  Christians  in  Rome  belonged  to  the  class  of  slaves  or 
of  freedmen. 

All  the  churches  of  Christ  salute  yon  (xvi.,  16). — Paul  ven- 
tures to  send  this  unique  salutation,  knowing  what  a  deep 
interest  was  felt  by  all  the  churches  in  the  establishment  of 
a  Christian  community  in  the  metropolis  of  the  empire. 

A  paragraph  is  now^  very  unexpectedly  inserted,  warning  the 
Romans  against  false  teachers  (xvi.,  17-20). 

Paul  must  have  had  some  reason  for  dreading  the  influence 
of  such  men,  and  have  thought  it  well  to  put  his  readers  on 
their  guard  ;  and  as  the  warning  is  quite  unconnected  with 
the  general  subject  of  the  Epistle,  there  was  no  good  place 
for  its  insertion  before.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the 
men  referred  to  were  Jewish  Christians,  simply  because 
Paul's  antagonists  generally  belonged  to  that  class  ;  but 
there  is  nothing  in  the  passage  itself  to  suggest  this.  The 
plausible  and  eloquent  talk,  the  love  of  good  feeding,  and 
the  implied  assumption  of  wisdom,  point  rather  to  Greek  ad- 
venturers, who,  when  they  had  failed  elsewhere,  sought  to 
impose  on  the  simplicity  of  the  Christians. 

The  benediction  (xvi.,  20),  according  to  usage,  marks  the 
close  of  the  Epistle,  so  that  the  remaining  verses  must  be 
regarded  as  a  postscript. 

Greetings  from  various  friends  follow  (xvi. ,21-23).  Four  of  the 
names,  Eucius,  Tertius,  Gains,  and  Quartus,  are  Eatin. 
Tertius  wrote  the  Epistle,  either  taking  it  down  from  dicta- 
lion  or  making  a  fair  copy  from  the  Apostle's  less  elegant 
manuscript.     He  inserts  the  salutation  for  himself,  and  so 


xvi.,  24-27.  ROHfANS  353 

uses  the  first  person.  Gaius,  in  whose  house  Paul  seems  to 
have  been  a  guest,  was  probably  the  disciple  of  that  name 
whom  Paul  had  baptised  (i  Cor.  i.,  14). 

In  the  ordinary  text  a  benediction  is  once  more  inserted 
(xvi.,  24).  It  is  omitted  by  the  Revisers  in  accordance  with 
the  best  authorities. 

The  Epistle  closes  with  a  long  and  involved  doxology  (xvi. ,  25-27). 
The  genuineness  of  this  is  doubted  by  many  able  scholars, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  varying  way  in  which  it  is  treated 
by  the  manuscripts,  some  of  the  best  inserting  it  at  the  end 
of  chapter  xiv.,  a  few  giving  it  in  both  places,  and  a  few 
omitting  it  altogether.  The  style  also  shows  affinities  with 
that  of  the  later  Epistles.  The  subject  is  too  technical  for 
discussion  here,  and  the  reader  who  desires  further  inform- 
ation must  seek  it  in  larger  connnentaries.  Its  presence  or 
absence  does  not  afi'ect  our  interpretation  of  the  Epistle, 
and  therefore  a  decision  of  the  question  is  of  subordinate 
importance. 

The  revelation  of  the  mystery  (xvi.,  25);  that  is,  the  hidden 
purpose  of  God,  including  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  (see 
Eph.  iii.,  4  sqq.^,  which  had  been  made  known  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Prophets,  and  now  had  been  made  historically 
manifest  in  the  person  and  mission  of  Christ. 

To  tuhovi  (xvi.,  27).— The  insertion  of  the  relative  breaks 
the  construction  ;  but  it  is  too  well  attested  for  us  to  omit  it. 
The  antecedent  is  "  the  only  wise  God." 

The  doxology,  whether  it  be  from  the  Apostle's  own  hand 
or  not,  is  well  suited  to  the  .subject  of  the  Epistle,  and,  though 
it  is  not  sanctioned  by  Paul's  usual  practice,  forms,  with  its 
concentrated  thought  and  lofty  sentiment,  a  worthy  close  of 
this  great  spiritual  treatise. 


EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  church  at  Phihppi  was,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  first 
Christian  church  in  Europe,  certainly  the  first  founded 
by  Paul.  In  the  course  of  his  second  missionary  journey  the 
Apostle,  accompanied  by  Silas  and  Timotheus,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  general  opinion,  by  Luke,'  landed  at  Neapolis  in 
Thrace,  and  pressed  on  over  the  mountain  chain  into  Mace- 
donia, where  Philippi  was  the  first  city  that  they  reached." 
The  town  derived  its  name  from  the  father  of  Alexander  the 
Great  ;  but  Augustus,  owing  to  the  strength  of  its  position, 
converted  it  into  a  Roman  colony,  and  conferred  upon  it  the 
Jus  Italicum,  so  that  at  the  time  of  Paul's  visit  it  was  under 
the  immediate  government  of  Roman  magistrates.  We  may 
infer  that  the  Jews  were  a  very  small  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, for  we  hear  nothing  of  a  synagogue,  but  only  of  a  place 
of  prayer  outside  the  city,  and  of  an  address,  not  to  a  mixed 
congregation,  but  to  the  women  who  assembled  there.  The 
only  conversion  that  is  mentioned  .in  connection  with  this 
Jewish  oratory  is  that  of  Lydia,  who  was  not  a  Jewess,  but 
a  proselytess  from  Thyatira.  Further,  we  are  told  nothing 
of  opposition  on  the  part  of  Jews,  and  the  severe  treatment 

'  Acts  XV.,  40  ;  xvi.,  3,  11  ;  xvii.,  14,  15. 

'Acts  xvi.,  12,  where  npooTi/  probably  refers  to  position,  not  to  dis- 
tinction, Tbessalonica  being  the  capital.  See  Lightfoot's  note,  Philip.^ 
p.  49- 

355 


356  INTRODUCTION 

of  Paul  and  Silas  was  due  entirely  to  Gentile  complaints. 
We  may  reasonably  conclude  that  at  its  foundation  the 
church  was  exclusively  Gentile,  and  that  if,  at  a  later  time, 
it  was  a  mixed  society  of  Gentiles  and  Jews,  the  latter  cer- 
tainly did  not  form  an  important  section  of  its  members. 
There  is  hardly  room  for  doubt  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Pliil- 
ippiaus  was  written  in  Rome.  Paul  was  a  prisoner  in  bonds, ' 
and  felt  uncertain  whether  the  imprisonment  might  not  end 
with  his  death."  That  the  loss  of  liberty  was  not  of  very 
recent  date  is  apparent  not  only  from  the  wavering  between 
confident  hope  of  release  ^  and  the  resigned  anticipation  of 
death, ^  but  from  the  effects  which  are  attributed  to  his  bonds, 
both  among  the  general  public  and  among  the  brethren.^ 
This  state  of  things  points  unmistakably  to  the  one  long  im- 
prisonment, first  in  Csesarea  and  then  in  Rome.  That  the 
lattter  was  the  place  where  the  Epistle  was  composed  is  indi- 
cated by  the  allusion  to  "  Caesar's  household,"  '  an  expres- 
sion which  comprises  the  whole  of  the  imperial  establishment, 
including  the  great  retinue  of  slaves,  amongst  whom,  in  all 
probabiHty,  the  converts  to  Christianity  were  found.  The 
reference  to  the  Prsetorium  '  points  in  the  same  direction;  for 
though  the  governor's  residence  at  Csesarea  is  described  by 
that  term,'  the  language  in  the  Epistle  seems  to  imply 
something  more  extensive  and  important.  In  Rome  the 
word  was  used  to  denote,  not  a  residence,  but  the  body  of 
imperial  guards "  ;  and  as  Paul  was  in  the  custody  of  the 
Prefect  of  the  Praetorian  cohorts,'"  he  must  have  had  oppor- 
tunities of  exercising  his  personal  influence  over  a  large 
number  of  soldiers,  to  one  of  whom  he  was  chained  day  and 

M.,  7,  13,  14,  16,  M.,  12-18. 

*i.,  20-24;  "•>  17.  18;  iii.,  10.  *iv.,  22. 

^i.,  25,  26 ;  ii.,  24.  'i.,  13. 

■'i.,  21,  23  ;  ii.,  17.  *  Acts  xxiii.,  35. 

^See  this  established  by  I/ightfoot,  Philippians,  pp.  97  sqq. 
'"Acts  xxviii.,  16. 


PHILIPPIANS  357 

night.     Thus  all  the  circumstances  suit  Rome  as  the  place 
of  composition. 

It  is  less  easy  to  determine  the  date.     Some  would  place 
it  as  late  as  possible,  so  as  to  leave  time  for  Paul's  influence 
to  make  itself  felt  in  Rome,  and  on  account  of  his  apparent 
loneliness,  none  of  his  old  companions  being  mentioned  ex- 
cept Timothy.'     Accordingly,  on  the  supposition  that  Paul 
perished  in  the  Neronian  persecution,  the  Epistle  was  writ- 
ten shortly  before  that  event,  at  the  end  of  63  or  early  in  64 
A.D.,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  last  of  the  Epistles  of  the 
imprisonment.     Lightfoot,  on  the  contrary,   makes  it  the 
earliest  in  the  series,  on  the  ground  that  "  in  style  and  tone, 
as  well  as  in  its  prominent  ideas,  it  bears  a  much  greater  re- 
semblance to  the  earlier  letters  than  do  the  Epistles  to  the 
Colossians   and   Ephesians,"   and  that   the  latter  Epistles, 
especially  that  to  the  P:phesians,  "  exhibit  an  advanced  stage 
in  the  development  of  the  Church."     The  arguments  on  the 
other  side  are  not,  he  thinks,  very  weighty  ;  for  there  was  a 
flourishing   Christian    connnunity   at   Rome    before    Paul's 
arrival,  and  this  may  have  included  members  of  Caesar's 
household  ;  and  there  is  actually  an  allusion  to  Paul's  com- 
panions in  the  expression  "the  brethren  with  me  salute 
you,"  followed  as  this  is  by  the  words  "  all  the  saints  salute 
you."  '     Some  time  undoubtedly  must  have  elapsed  to  allow 
messages  to  pass  between  Rome  and  Philippi  ;  but  a  very 
few  months  at  most  would  have  sufficed  for  this  purpose.' 
These  reasons  may  determine  our  judgment  ;  but  after  all 
the  difference  of  date  is  not  considerable,  and  does  not  affect 
in  any  way  the  purport  of  the  Epistle."     A  changed  view  of 
Pauline  chronology  would  ol:)lige  us,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
Epistles,  to  place  the  date  somewhat  earlier. 

Mi.,  19,  20.  'iv.,  21,  22. 

3  See  the  question  discussed  in  Li.t,ditfoot,  Philippiaiis,  pp.  29-45. 
■•The  Epistle  is  of  course  placed  earlier  by  those  who  set  back  the 
whole  chronology  of  Paul's  life. 


35  8  INTRODUCTION 

The  brethren  at  Philippi,  having  heard  of  Paul's  arrival  in 
Rome,  had  sent  Epaphroditus  thither  with  a  present,  to  re- 
lieve his  necessities,  and  to  manifest  their  sympathy  with 
him  in  his  affliction.  This  "Apostle"  of  the  Church, 
Paul's  "  fellow- worker  and  fellow-soldier,"  was  sick  nigh 
unto  death  while  he  was  in  Rome  ;  and  on  his  recovery  Paul 
thought  it  well  to  send  him  back  to  Philippi,  where  his 
friends  had  been  rendered  anxious  by  the  news  of  his  illness. 
These  events  furnished  the  occasion  for  the  letter,  which  is 
therefore  not  adapted  to  any  particular  subject  or  group  of 
subjects,  but  is  an  informal  outpouring  of  affection  and 
gratitude,  giving  a  short  account  of  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Rome,  and  containing  such  admonitions  as  seemed  likely  to 
be  useful.  Everything  is  of  course  surveyed  through  the 
medium  of  that  Gospel  to  which  Paul's  life  was  consecrated, 
and  some  of  his  great  thoughts  respecting  righteousness  by 
faith,  and  the  lowliness  and  exaltation  of  Christ,  are  brought 
in  to  give  emphasis  to  his  advice,  but  are  not  expressed  with 
the  clearness  and  fulness  that  we  could  desire.  As  was 
natural  in  the  case  of  one  who  had  to  depend  on  the  reports 
of  others  for  his  knowledge  of  what  was  going  on,  whose 
heart  was  sick  with  deferred  hope,  and  the  issue  of  whose 
trial  was  becoming  more  and  more  uncertain,  his  feelings 
fluctuated,  and  things  now  appeared  more  prosperous  and 
again  more  gloomy,  now  it  seemed  that  the  majority  were 
emboldened  to  speak  the  word  without  fear,'  and  again  that 
all  were  seeking  their  own  affairs,  not  the  things  of  Jesus 
Christ."  Joy  and  sorrow,  hope  and  apprehension,  confidence 
in  the  success  of  the  Gospel  and  weeping  for  those  who  were 
enemies  of  the  cross,  quiet  anticipation  of  being  with  Christ 
and  a  humble  sense  that  he  had  not  yet  attained  and  was  not 
yet  perfect,  alternate  in  the  Epistle.'     But  on  the  whole  the 

'i.,  14.  Mi.,  21. 

^See  i.,  4,  18;    ii.,  17;   iv.,  10;   ii.,  27;   iv.,  14;    i.,  12-18;  iii.,   18; 
i.,  23  ;  iii.,  11-14. 


PHILIPPIANS  359 

note  of  joy  is  dominant.  The  Apostle  had  learnt  to  be  "  self- 
sufficing,"  '  not  in  the  proud  sense  of  the  fashionable  Stoic- 
ism, but  through  the  power  of  one  who  strengthened  him." 
The  Lord  was  at  hand  ■';  and  in  the  midst  of  his  trouble  he 
still  expected  a  Saviour  from  the  heavens,'  and  believed  that 
all  would  be  well  in  the  "  day  of  Jesus  Christ,"  '—a  trust  not 
destined  to  be  realised  in  the  form  in  which  it  presented 
itself  to  the  Apostle,  but  doubtless  in  some  grander  form, 
which  eye  has  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard. 

Notwithstanding  the  unartificial  character  of  this  Epistle, 
its  suitability  to  the  supposed  circumstances  of  Paul  and  of 
his  readers,  and  its  general  agreement  with  Pauline  thought 
and  style,  its  genuineness  does  not  remain  unchallenged.  It 
was  denied  by  Baur,  and  his  attack  was  followed  up  by  other 
writers.  Replies  were  not  wanting  even  on  the  part  of  those 
who  claim  to  be  members  of  the  critical  school,  among  whom 
Hilgenfeld  may  be  especially  mentioned,  and  I  think  the 
result  at  the  present  day  is  that  the  genuineness  is  accepted 
by  the  majority  of  critics,  and  is  rejected  only  by  a  few  who 
occupy  what  may  fairly  be  called  an  extreme  position.  In 
this  conclusion  we  may  be  content  to  acquiesce. 

'iv.,  II.         -'iv.,  13.  iv.,  5.         Mii.,  20.         H.,  6,  10;  ii.,  16. 


PHILIPPIANS. 


ANALYSIS. 
I.    Expression  of  thankfulness  and   i.ove  towards  the 

READERS,   AND  PRAYER  FOR  THEM,   i.,  3-II. 

II.    Paul's  condition,  and  the  success  of  the  Gospel  at  Rome, 

AND  expectations  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  FUTURE,  i.,  1 2-26. 

III.    Exhortations,  i.,  27-ii.,  18. 

1.  To  strive  harmoniously  for  the  Gospel,  whether  Paul  should 

come  or  not,  i.,  27-30. 

2.  To  be  of  one  mind,  and  not  factious,  enforced  by  an  appeal 

to  their  Christian  experience,  ii.,  1-4. 

3.  Further  enforced  by  an  appeal  to  the  example  of  Christ,  ii., 

4.  Consequently,  to  be  obedient  and  blameless,  u.,  12-18. 

IV.    He   hopes   to  SEND  Timothy  shortly,  and  is  sending 

Epaphroditus  at  once,  ii.,  19-30- 
V.    A  further  series  of  exhortations,  iii.,  i-iv.,  9. 

1.  Warning  against  Jewish  opponents  and  worldly-minded  men, 

and  appeal  to  Paul's  example  in  embracing  the  righteous- 
ness of  faith,  iii.,  i-iv.,  i. 

a.  Description  of  the  opponents,  and  contrast  between  their 

principle  and  that  of  Christianity,  iii.,   1-16. 

b.  Exhortation  to  follow  Paul  in  the  heavenly  life,  for  many 

set  a  bad  example,  iii.,  17-21. 

c.  Concluding  exhortation  to  stand  fast,  iv.,  i. 

2.  Admonitions  to  individuals,  iv.,  2,  3. 

3.  Concluding  exhortations  arising  out  of  the  foregoing,  iv.,4-9. 

VI.    Thanks  for  the  gift,  iv.,  10-20. 

Conclusion,  iv.,  21-23.     Greetings  and  benediction. 

361 


PHILIPPIANS. 


COMMENTARY. 
The  Epistle,  as  usual,  opens  with  an  address  and  greeting  (i., 

1,2). 

Paul  unites  Timothy  with  himself  (see  note  on  i  Thess.  i., 
i)  ;  but  from  the  third  verse  he  writes  in  the  first  person 
singular,  and  in  ii.,  19  speaks  of  sending  Timothy  to  them  ;  so 
that  there  can  be  no  question  of  joint  authorship.  "Servants, " 
or  rather  "  slaves,"  is  correlative  to  the  title  "  Lord  "  applied 
to  Jesus,  and  may  refer  here  particularly  to  the  ministry  in 
which  Paul  and  Timoth)^  were  engaged.  The  term  "Apostle" 
is  absent,  as  in  i  Thess.  i.,  i,  which  see.  For  "  saints  "  see 
Rom.  i.,  7.     For  the  meaning  of  the  salutation  see  Gal.  i.,  3. 

Bishops  and  deacons  (i.,  l). — It  is  probable  that  these  are 
specified  because  the  contribution  from  the  church  came 
through  their  hands.  It  is  impossible  to  discuss  here  the 
various  questions  which  are  suggested  by  the  presence  of 
these  words.  I  can  only  ask  the  reader  to  observe  that 
there  is  a  plurality  of  bishops,  or  "  superintendents  "  ;  that 
they,  along  with  the  deacons  or  "  ministers,"  are  evidently 
a  recognised  body  of  men,  though  the  absence  of  the  article 
in  the  Greek  seems  to  show  that  the  body  was  still  rather 
indefinite  ;  that  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  enumeration 
of  church  offices,  in  i  Cor.  xii.,  S-io  and  28,  Eph.  iv.,  11; 
and  lastly,  that  there  is  no  reference  to  presbyters. 

After  the  greeting,  Paul  pours  out  his  feelings  of  affection  for  his 
readers  in  a  thanksgiving,  and  expression  of  his  confidence  and 
love  towards  them,  and  a  prayer  for  their  further  growth  (i.,  3-11). 

363 


364  PHILIPPIANS  i.,  3-8. 

All  my  remembrance  (i.,  3):  not  "  every  remembrance,"  as 
in  the  Authorised  Version.  He  remembered  nothing  that 
was  not  a  fit  subject  for  thanksgiving. 

On  behalf  of  yon  all({.,  4). — The  Revisers  apparently  intend 
to  connect  these  words  with  "  in  every  supplication  of  mine," 
in  which  case  the  meaning  is  that  whenever  Paul  prayed  for 
the  Philippians  he  did  so  with  joy.  The  Greek,  however, 
allows  us  to  connect  them  with  the  following  words ;  and 
then  the  sense  is  that  in  all  his  prayers  Paul  joyfully  in- 
cluded the  Philippians.  The  latter  seems  on  the  whole  to 
yield  the  better  sense,  and  avoids  some  awkwardness  in  the 
expression  and  an  undue  emphasis  on  the  "  joy." 

For yonr fellowship  (i.,  5). — We  must  connect  these  words 
with  "  I  thank,"  which  otherwise  has  no  object.  The 
reference  is  probably  to  their  fellowship  with  one  another, 
through  their  common  interest  in  the  Gospel  ;  and  this  in- 
ward harmony  had  been  unbroken  since  the  church  was 
founded.  In  some  other  churches  it  had  not  been  so.  We 
should  not,  however,  exclude  fellowship  with  Paul  himself, 
for  this  is  referred  to  in  verse  7. 

He  (i.,  6);  that  is,  God.  It  is  here  implied  that,  whatever 
human  conditions  there  may  be,  the  initiation  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  higher  spiritual  life  are  from  God. 

The  day  of  fesus  Christ  (i.,  6)  refers  to  the  time  of  the 
second  coming.  It  is  evident  that  Paul  still  regards  it  as 
not  very  far  off. 

To  be  thus  viinded  (!.,  7),  to  have  the  confidence  of  which 
he  has  just  spoken.  He  ought  to  have  it  because  they  are 
so  close  to  his  heart,  bound  to  him  in  the  ties  of  Christian 
love  ;  and  they  are  so,  because  they  have  fellowship  with 
him  in  the  grace  which  begins  and  perfects  the  good  work. 

/  have  yon  in  my  heart  (i.,  7)- — '^be  translation  in  the 
margin,  "  ye  have  me  in  your  heart,"  seems  to  me  quite  in- 
admissible. 

God  is  my  witness  (i.,  8). — This  expression  arises  simply 


i.,  8-12.  PHILIPPIANS  365 

from  the  strength  of  Paul's  feehng,  for  there  is  no  evidence 
of  any  cloud  of  suspicion  between  him  and  members  of  the 
church.  The  case  is  different  in  2  Cor.  i.,  23.  Compare 
Rom.  i.,  9. 

The  tender  mercies  of  Christ  (i.,  8). — His  love  for  them  was 
more  than  mere  natural  affection.  Christ's  was  the  great 
heart  from  which  the  heart  of  Paul  derived  its  life-beats. 

Your  love  (i.,  9)  ;  not  to  be  confined  to  their  love  for  one 
another.  Christian  love  is  a  permanent  and  pervasive 
quality  of  character,  ready,  like  light,  to  shine  on  every  ob- 
ject that  comes  within  its  sphere.  Yet  such  love  is  not 
without  discernment.  On  the  contrary,  it  looks  straight  into 
the  real  nature  of  its  objects,  and  in  proportion  to  its  purity 
gets  nearer  to  the  Divine  point  of  view,  and  sees  things  in 
their  true  relations. 

Approve  the  tilings  that  arc  excellent  {\.y  lo). — Here,  I  think, 
the  marginal  translation  (which  is  quite  admissible)  is  better. 
It  is  suggested  by  the  praj^er  for  "  discernment,"  and  the 
approval  of  things  that  are  excellent  is  a  very  ordinary  vir- 
tue. The  reference  is  to  the  fine  distinctions  of  considerate 
conduct  which  are  visible  only  to  the  highest  love.  The 
same  phrase  occurs  in  Rom.  ii.,  18,  where,  however  we 
translate  it,  it  is  used  with  some  degree  of  irony. 

Void  of  offence  (i.,  lo). — The  only  other  place  where  Paul 
uses  the  Greek  word  is  i  Cor.  x.,  32,  where  it  is  translated, 
"  give  no  occasion  of  stumbling."  This  is  probably  the 
meaning  here,  the  avoidance  of  such  occasions  being  part  of 
the  discernment  of  love. 

After  this  introductory  expression  of  his  regard  for  the  Philip- 
pians,  Paul  goes  on  to  speak  of  his  personal  affairs,  and  his  expect- 
ations for  the  future  (i.,  12-26). 

I  would  have  you  know  (i.,  12),  correcting  an  opinion  which 
they  might  naturally  have  entertained,  that  his  imprison- 
ment must  interfere  with  the  progress  of  the  Gospel.  It  had 
just  the  opposite  effect. 


366  PHILIPPIANS  i.,  13-16. 

Manifest  hi  Christ  (i.,  13)  ;  that  is,  it  became  well  known 
that  he  was  in  bonds,  not  for  any  crime,  but  in  the  cause  of 
Christ. 

Prcstorian  guard  (i.,  13). — These  were  a  select  body  of 
troops,  numbering  at  this  time  ten  thousand,  who  were 
stationed  at  Rome,  and  formed  the  imperial  guard.  As  he 
was  in  the  custody  of  the  Praetorians,  and  constantly  kept 
chained  to  one  of  them,  he  may  have  known  several  of  them 
personally,  and  his  case  would  become  a  subject  of  conversa- 
tion among  the  men. 

All  the  I'cst  (i.,  13) :  all  others  with  whom  he  was  brought 
into  contact ;  not  necessarily  all  the  other  inhabitants  of 
Rome. 

Confident  through  my  bonds  (i.,  14). — "  In  the  Lord  "  may 
be  connected  with  "being  confident"  ;  but  whether  we 
adopt  this  connection  or  not,  the  meaning  must  be,  not  that 
the  brethren  trusted  in  his  bonds,  but  that,  instead  of  being 
discouraged  by  them,  they  were  emboldened  to  run  all  risks 
for  the  Gospel,  so  that  in  this  way  too  the  good  work  was 
furthered. 

Some  indeed  (i.,  15), — These  seem  clearly  to  be  an  excep- 
tion to  the  majority  just  spoken  of.  Their  motives  are  envy 
and  strife  and  a  desire  to  afflict  Paul  ;  and  these  can  hardly  be 
ascribed  to  the  brethren  referred  to  in  verse  14.  Neverthe- 
less "  some  also  of  [or,  on  account  of]  good- will  "  (towards 
Paul  and  the  Gospel)  points  back  to  these  brethren,  who  are 
here  limited  to  "  some  "  in  order  to  make  the  clause  parallel 
with  the  preceding.  Who  these  envious  people  were  is  not 
stated,  and  it  is  a  pure  assumption  that  they  were  Judaisers. 
Paul  is  apparently  satisfied  with  their  preaching,  and  only 
objects  to  its  motive.  They  were  most  likely  fussy  and  am- 
bitious men,  who  did  not  like  being  overshadowed  by  the 
great  Apostle. 

The  one  do  it  of  love  (i.,  16).— This  translation  makes  the 
passage  tautological.     I  prefer,  therefore,  the  equally  admis- 


i.,  18-22.  PHILIPPIANS  367 

sible  rendering,  "  Those  who  act  from  love  do  it,  knowing, 
etc.,  but  those  who  act  from  faction  proclaim  Christ,  not 
sincerely,"  imagining  that  they  will  afflict  me. 

Therein  I  rejoice  fi.,  18),  literally,  "  in  this,"  that  is,  in  the 
proclamation  of  Christ,  from  whatever  motive.  As  the 
punctuation  of  ancient  writings  is  a  matter  of  editorial  dis- 
cretion, I  should  prefer  placing  a  full  stop  at  the  first  "  re- 
joice," and  a  semicolon  at  the  second.  Paul,  then,  taking 
up  the  word,  turns  to  the  future,  "  Yea,  and  I  will  rejoice  ; 
for  I  know."  "  This  "  in  verse  19  need  not  then  have  the 
same  reference  as  "  this"  ("therein")  in  verse  18,  which 
would  hardly  yield  a  good  sense,  but  may  include  all  that  he 
has  said  about  his  bonds  :  whatever  was  happening  to  him 
in  Rome  would  turn  to  his  salvation,  his  participation  in 
the  Messianic  kingdom. 

Supply  of  the  Spirit  (i.,  19). — This  may  mean,  the  supply 
which  the  Spirit  gives  ;  but  then  we  naturally  ask,  the  supply 
of  what  ?  I  think,  therefore,  it  is  better  to  understand  the 
Spirit  as  that  which  is  supplied,  and  which  Paul  hoped  to 
receive  in  ever-increasing  measure.     Compare  Gal.  iii.,  5. 

Put  to  shame  (i.,  20),  proved  to  be  an  idle  dream.  The 
opposite  to  this  was  that  Christ  should  be  magnified  in  that 
very  body  which  was  worn  with  bonds,  and  might  soon,  if 
the  trial  proved  unfavourable,  be  doomed  to  death. 

To  live  is  Christ  (i.,  2l). — The  context  shows  that  "  to 
live  "  refers,  not  to  the  principle  of  life,  but  to  continuance 
in  life.  The  condensed  expression,  therefore,  must  mean 
that  to  continue  in  life  would  be  a  complete  devotion  of  him- 
self to  the  service  of  Christ.  He  could  wish  nothing  better  ; 
yet  to  die  would  be  a  personal  gain,  a  release  from  his  bonds, 
and  a  closer  personal  union  with  Christ. 

If  this  is  the  fndt  of  my  work  (i.,  22). — The  construction 
of  this  verse  is  uncertain,  and  the  sense  rather  obscure.  The 
meaning  may  probably  be  given  thus  :  It  would  be  a  gain  to 
me  to  die  ;  but  if  mj-  continuing  in  life  involves  fruit  spring- 


368  PHILIPPIANS  i.,  25-27. 

ing  from  my  prolonged  work,  I  may  well  hesitate  in  express- 
ing a  choice.  The  word  rendered  "  I  wot  "  always  signifies, 
in  the  New  Testament,  "  I  make  known."  So  it  may  be 
here,  "  I  make  no  declaration." 

/  know  that  I  shall  abide  (i.,  25). — This  is  simply  an  ex- 
pression of  trustful  assurance  ;  but  when  Paul  wrote  the 
words,  he  must  have  thought  that  his  acquittal  seemed 
probable.  Whether  his  expectation  was  ever  realised  we 
do  not  know.  The  evidence  is  uncertain,  and  opinion  is 
divided. 

Your  glorying  (i.,  26),  properly,  the  matter  of  your  glory- 
ing, that  which  gives  you  occasion  to  g\ory.  He  wishes  that 
this  may  abound  in  him  through  his  renewed  presence,  when 
he  can  minister  still  further  to  their  faith.  "  In  Christ 
Jes7is^'  expresses  the  spiritual  domain  within  which  the 
abounding  must  take  place. 

Paul  now  proceeds  to  give  some  admonitions,  which,  we  must 
suppose,  were  suggested  by  the  circumstances  of  the  church  (i., 
27-ii.,  18). 

First  he  exhorts  his  readers  to  be  worthy  of  the  Gospel,  and, 
whether  he  came  to  them  or  not,  to  stand  fast,  and  strive  harmo- 
niously for  the  faith  (i.,  27-30). 

Let  yo2ir  manner  of  life  (i.,  27);  literally,  "  behave  as  citi- 
zens," a  figure  borrowed  from  the  Roman  citizenship,  of 
which  the  Philippians,  as  a  Roman  colony,  would  naturally 
be  proud.  It  is  also  better  suited  to  the  context  than  the 
usual  "  walk,"  as  it  suggests  a  united  and  organised  life, 
directed  by  common  interests. 

In  one  spirit  (i.,  27). — The  word  "  spirit  "  is  here  obviously 
used  quite  in  our  modern  .sense  to  denote  the  disposition  or 
tone  of  mind.  "  Soul"  has  the  same  kind  of  impersonal 
sense,  and  is  descriptive  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings.  Both 
are  used  elsewhere  in  a  personal  sense,  of  the  individual  .seat 
of  the  higher  affections  and  perceptions,  and  of  the  lower 
intellectual  and  sensitive  life. 


i.,  27-ii.,  I.  PHILIPPIANS  369 

The  faith  of  the  Gospel  (i.,  27).— The  Greek  words  might 
mean  "  faith  in  the  Gospel,"  but  here  probably  signify  the 
faith  proclaimed  by  the  Gospel. 

The  advcrsanes  (i.,  28).— There  is  no  occasion  to  limit 
these  to  Jews,  even  though  their  attack  might  be  most  likely 
to  cause  some  division  in  the  church.  Towards  Gentile 
opponents  also  it  was  necessary  to  present  a  united  front,  and 
divisions  among  Christians  are  not,  and  were  not,  due  solely 
to  the  presence  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  the  church. 
Here  there  is  no  reference  to  any  doctrinal  difference,  but 
only  to  such  divisions  as  are  cau.sed  by  temper  and  ambition. 

That  from  God  (i.,  28).— The  gender  in  the  Greek  shows 
that  "that"  refers,  not  to  "salvation,"  but  to  the  whole 
previous  clause. 

//  hath  been  (granted  {{.,  29).— It  was  a  gift  of  grace  (for 
this  is  the  meaning  of  the  word)  to  suffer  for  Christ.  This 
confirmed  and  deepened  their  love. 

To  suffer  in  his  behalf  (i.,  29).— The  construction  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  when  it  is  said  that  Christ  died  or  suffered 
for  (on  behalf  of)  men. 

Saw  in  me  (i.,  30),  when  he  was  at  Philippi,  where  he  was 
scourged  and  imprisoned.  Of  his  conflict  in  Rome  they 
knew  by  hearsay. 

He  continues  the  same  subject,  supporting  his  plea  by  an  earnest 
appeal  to  their  Christian  experience  (ii.,  1-4). 

Comfort  (ii.,  l).— The  word  also  means  "exhortation," 
which  seems  better  here  :  If  there  is  anything  in  Christ 
which  still  exhorts  you  to  be  worthy  of  him. 

Consolation  (ii.,  l):  better,  "  persuasion,"  "  if  love  has  any 
persuasive  power  to  move  you  to  concord  "  (Vincent). 

Spirit  (ii.,  l).— In  the  ab.sence  of  the  article  in  the  Greek 
I  doubt  whether  the  reference  is  (at  least  directly)  to  the 
Holy  Spirit.  It  rather  refers  to  the  "  one  spirit  "  of  i.,  27, 
the  common  participation  in  which  would  bind  them  together 


37°  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  2-4. 

in  brotherly  union.  It  is  quite  true,  however,  that  this 
points  to  the  communion  of  the  Holj^  Spirit. 

That  ye  be  (ii.,  2). — This  is  an  exhortation,  depending  on 
what  is  implied,  though  not  actually  expressed,  in  the  fore- 
going. 

Of  the  same  viind  .  .  .  0/ ofie  mz>/d  (ii.,  2). — We  may 
perhaps  distinguish  these  by  making  the  former  refer  to  their 
entertaining  the  same  feelings  towards  one  another,  the  latter 
to  their  all  having  that  unity  of  sentiment  which  was  in- 
volved in  the  unity  of  the  Gospel  and  of  the  Church. 

Faction  or  vainglory  (ii.,  3). — We  must  suppose  that  the 
church  required  this  exhortation,  and  undoubtedly  the  feel- 
ings which  are  condemned  might  arise  between  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christians.  But  differences  of  principle  do  not 
necessarily  imply  factiousness,  and  the  words  contain  no 
evident  allusion  to  an}^  deep-seated  division,  but  only  to 
petty  jealousies  and  conceited  claims. 

His  own  things  (ii.,  4),  his  own  superior  advantages.  By 
looking  only  at  oneself,  and  not  at  others,  one  gets  an  ex- 
aggerated idea  of  one's  own  importance. 

This  exhortation  is  enforced  by  an  appeal  to  the  example  of 
Christ  (ii.,  5-1 1). 

This  passage  presents  great  difficulties,  and  commentators 
are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  its  interpretation.  If  we  only 
knew  what  Paul  had  already  taught  the  Philippians,  our 
course  would  be  easier  ;  for  then  we  could  divine  what  mean- 
ing they  would  naturally  attach  to  his  words.  But  in  the 
absence  of  this  knowledge,  it  is  almost  inevitable  for  each 
expositor  to  assume  that  his  own  doctrinal  prepossessions 
were  in  the  minds  of  the  first  readers  of  the  Epistle,  and 
therefore  furnish  the  key  to  the  interpretation.  In  relation 
to  a  passage  which  has  been  so  largely  used  for  dogmatic 
purposes  no  one  can  be  absolutely  free  from  bias,  and  we  can 
only  do  our  best  to  interpret  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  pure 


ii.,  5-II.  PlfflJPPrANS  371 

criticism,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  one  function  of  a  com- 
mentator is  to  find  out  what  the  Apostle  meant.  It  is  im- 
possible, in  the  present  instance,  to  pursue  our  task  without 
recourse  to  the  Greek  ;  but  for  the  benefit  of  those  lui- 
acquainted  with  Greek  I  venture  first  to  suggest  the  follow- 
ing paraphrase  : — Have  the  humble  and  self- renouncing 
mind  which  you  know  was  in  Christ  ;  who,  though  he  was 
spiritually  the  image  of  God,  did  not  think  that  the  being 
on  an  equality  with  God  consisted  of  selfish  grasping,  but 
emptied  himself  of  all  self-regarding  claims  and  advantages, 
and  assumed  the  image  of  a  slave,  being  among  us  as  one 
that  served,  and  made  like  the  common  run  of  men  ;  and 
being  found  in  his  outward  fashion  as  an  ordinary  man  he 
humbled  himself,  and  was  submissive  to  the  will  of  God, 
even  to  the  extreme  of  dying  on  the  cross.  Wherefore  also 
God  highly  exalted  him. 

Our  first  question  is,  what  is  meant  by  "  Christ  Jesus  "  ?  A  common, 
thouj^b  by  110  means  universal,  answer  is  that  the  name  denotes  the 
eternal  Son  of  God,  or  at  least  some  heavenly  bein^,  iu  his  state 
prior  to  the  incarnation.  The  objection  to  this  is  the  same  as  that 
which  has  been  advanced  iu  2  Cor.  viii.,  9,  that  both  Christ  and  Jesus 
are  historical  names,  and  that  Paul  would  naturally  have  used  the 
term  "Son  of  God,"  with  which  he  was  familiar,  if  he  was  referring 
to  a  pre-existent  condition.  The  force  of  this  consideration  is  ad- 
mitted by  several  interpreters  of  unquestioned  orthodoxy  ;  and  it 
seems  to  me  decisive,  unless  the  remainder  of  the  passage  makes  it 
impossible.  So  far,  however,  is  this  from  being  the  case  that  in  the 
last  verse  "Jesus  Christ "  seems  clearly  used  of  the  historical  person, 
and  it  is  not  likely  that  it  is  employed  in  two  different  senses  within 
the  same  passage.  We  may  add  that  in  verse  7  "  the  form  of  a  slave  " 
is  mentioned  before  "the  likeness  of  men,"  and  this  fact  suggests  that 
the  latter  expression  does  not  refer  to  the  incarnation.  Some  have 
imagined  that  the  word  vTtdpxoav  implies  pre-existence,  and  the 
English  Revisers  say  in  the  margin  that  the  Greek  means  "being 
originally."  There  is  nothing  in  the  usage  of  the  word  to  justify 
this  notion,  and  it  may  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  following  pas- 
sages : — Luke  viii.,  41,  (I/j^gji'  xi,i  Cvraycsyiji  vnijijxf  ;  Acts  xvii.,  29, 


372  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  5-1 1. 

yevo'i  ovv  vTtcipxovTEi  rov  Beov ;  i  Cor.  xi.,  7,  avrjp  .  .  .  eiuoov 
nai  doqa  ()£ov  vitdpxooi'  ;  and  Gal.  ii.,  14,  ei  dv  'lovSaioZ  vTtdpxoov. 
In  none  of  these  instances  do  the  Revisers  add  a  marginal  note. 

"Being  in  the  form  of  God"  cannot  refer  to  material  shape,  for 
this  would  be  quite  inconsistent  with  the  spirituality  of  Paul's  con- 
ceptions. The  word  "form"  {/iiopcpr))  was  current  among  philoso- 
phers, and  Paul  may  use  it  here  to  some  extent  in  a  philosophical 
sense.  In  relation  to  material  objects  it  was  the  form  which  was 
determined  by  the  ideal,  the  "informing"  essence,  without  which 
the  objects  would  have  been  mere  indistinguishable  lumps  of  matter. 
When  transferred  to  immaterial  things,  it  must  similarly  denote  that 
which  expresses  their  essence,  and,  as  the  shape  in  this  case  is  quite 
ideal,  it  must  be  nearly  synonymous  with  the  essence  itself.  So  here 
the  reference  must  be  to  some  form  of  manifestation  which  expressed 
the  essence  of  God.  This,  however,  does  not  identify  Christ  with 
God,  from  whom  he  is  most  clearly  distinguished  throughout  the 
passage.  If  the  God-idea  (so  to  speak)  dwelt  within  him,  he  would 
be  in  the  form  of  God.  And  now  the  question  arises  whether  this 
form  expresses  the  metaphysical  or  the  moral  and  spiritual  essence 
of  God.  Unfortunately  Paul  does  not  use  the  word  except  in  the 
present  passage;  but  he  occasionally  uses  cognate  words,  which  I 
think  may  determine  its  meaning  here.  In  this  Epistle  (iii.,  10)  we 
read,  dvju/.iopcpiZojiievo's  zcp  Qavdzo)  avrov,  "becoming  conformed 
unto  bis  death."  These  words  are  not  simply  figurative,  describing  a 
moral  dying  to  sin.  Nevertheless  they  are  charged  with  ethical 
meaning ;  for  otherwise  the  two  thieves,  and  all  crucified  men,  were 
more  conformed  to  Christ's  death  than  Paul.  The  fellowship  of 
Christ's  sufferings  does  not  mean  enduring  pain  like  his,  but  sufiFer- 
iug  in  his  spirit,  and  in  the  same  cause;  and  so  conformity  to  his 
death  is  confronting  death  with  the  same  trust  and  the  same  love, 
even  though  its  outward  incidents  may  be  quite  different.  Farther 
on  (iii.,  21)  are  the  words  "who  shall  fashion  anew  [//£ra(jj?///trrz(j£2] 
the  body  of  our  humiliation,  that  it  may  be  conformed  [(?t;////op<poy] 
to  the  body  of  his  glory."  Here  the  former  expression  denotes  a 
change  of  outward  condition,  but  the  latter  goes  much  deeper,  and 
refers  to  an  inward  and  spiritual  change  which  will  make  the  body 
an  expressive  organ  of  the  Divine  glory.  In  Gal.  iv.,  19,  Paul  writes, 
"I  am  again  in  travail  until  Christ  be  formed  [i^iopcpcoO^']  in  you." 
The  whole  connection  points  to  a  spiritual  change,  the  inward  growth 
of  the  life  and  spirit  of  Christ.  In  Rom.  xii.,  2,  "  Be  ye  transformed 
[/<£ra/<o/3(poi)(jOf]  by  the  renewing  of  your  mind"  obviously  indicate^ 


ii.,  5-II.  PHILIPPIANS  373 

a  change  iu  the  moral  aims,  and  not  in  the  natural  substance  of  the 
mind  ;  and  still  more  profoundly  spiritual  is  the  sense  in  2  Cor.  iii., 
18,  "we  are  transformed  [ //erayf^opf/jou/^fOct]  into  the  same  image." 
And  lastly,  the  consummation  of  the  Christian  hope  is  expressed,  in 
Rom.  viii.,  29,  iu  these  words,  "  to  be  conformed  \6vt^in6pq)ov'i\  to  the 
image  of  His  Son,"  that  is,  to  have  the  same  all-coutrolliug  filial 
spirit,  raising  us  into  the  perfect  brotherhood  of  the  children  of  God. 
This  usage  seems  sufficient  to  justify  us  in  looking  for  a  spiritual 
meaning  in  the  present  passage.  Jesus  was  in  the  form  of  God,  not 
through  identity  of  metaphysical  essence,  but  through  participation 
in  the  Divine  Spirit  of  Love,  giving  to  his  soul,  as  it  were,  the  Divine 
impress,  and  making  him  supreme  among  men  through  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  communion  with  God.' 

The  translation  and  the  meaning  of  the  following  clause  are  much 
disputed.  The  Authorised  Version  renders  it,  "  thought  it  not  robbery 
to  be  equal  with  God,"  suggesting  a  sense  which  has  been  often  ac- 
cepted, that  Christ,  being  in  his  essential  nature  God,  thought  he  was 
not  committing  robbery  in  being  equal  with  God.  Thus  the  clause 
becomes  a  vapid  truism,  and  forms  no  antithesis  with  what  follows  ; 
and  moreover  it  has  no  connection  with  the  sentiment  of  the  passage. 
The  English  Revisers  translate,  "counted  it  not  a  prize."  If  this 
means  that  Christ  did  not  think  being  on  an  equality  with  God  was  a 
thing  to  be  prized  and  treasured,  the  sentiment  is  so  immoral  that 
one  must  hesitate  before  attributing  it  to  the  Apostle.  It  certainly 
does  not  represent  the  spirit  of  him  who  taught  his  disciples  to  be 
perfect  as  their  Father  in  heaven  is  perfect.  But  if,  in  order  to  escape 
from  this  objection,  it  be  said  that  the  equality  here  referred  to  is  an 
equality  in  grandeur  and  dignity,  the  conception  is  founded  on  a  low 
anthropomorphism,  and  is  opposed  to  the  central  idea  of  the  whole 
passage,  which  is  to  show  that  the  truly  Divine  does  not  consist  of 
outward  grandeur  and  dignity. 

In  any  case,  whatever  is  Divine  is  good,  and  ought  to  be  prized.  It 
may  perhaps  have  been  owing  to  these  difficulties,  as  well  as  to  a  con- 
viction of  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  apnaynoi,  that  the  American 
Revisers  have  translated,  "counted  not  the  being  on  an  equality  with 
God  a  thing  to  be  grasped."  With  this  rendering  the  meaning  would 
seem  to  be  that  equality  with  God  was  something  higher  than  being 
in  the  form  of  God,  although  one  who  was  in  that  form  might  natur- 

'  Ellicott  quotes  in  another  connection,  in  his  note  on  Gal.  iii.,  2S, 
an  instructive  sentence  from  CEcumenius,  rc3  iva  rvitov  xai  (xiav 
Hoptp-qv  ii'dsdvdOai,  zip'  rou  Xpidrov. 


374  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  5-1 1. 

ally  aspire  to  it ;  and  that  then  Christ,  instead  of  grasping  at  it, 
emptied  himself,  and  ultimately  received  it  as  a  reward  for  his 
humility  aud  suffering.  This  gives  a  coherent  sense  ;  but  there  are 
two  objections  to  it.  First,  "the  being  on  an  equality  with  God" 
seems,  from  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  to  be,  if  not  equivalent 
to  at  least  involved  in,  "being  in  the  form  of  God,"  and  to  point, 
therefore,  to  an  equality  which  Jesus  actually*  possessed.  And 
secondly,  in  this  interpretation  the  equality  can  refer  only  to  outward 
rank  and  power,  which  might  be  the  objects  of  a  grasping  ambition, 
and  not  to  spiritual  perfection,  which  does  not  appeal  to  the  rapacious 
instincts. 

Can  we,  then,  find  any  other  way  of  understanding  the  clause, 
which  will  better  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  passage  ?  'Apnayi^ioi, 
agreeably  to  its  termination,  ought  to  have  an  active,  and  not  a  pas- 
sive, sense.  The  Greek  interpreters,  indeed,  give  it  a  passive  mean- 
ing ;  and  there  is  suflBcient  analogy  in  the  usage  of  other  words  to 
justify  them  in  doing  so.  The  word  is  of  such  rare  occurrence  in 
non-Christian  writings  that  it  is  impossible  to  feel  certain  of  its  ordi- 
nary acceptation  ;  but  the  two  instances  which  are  cited  demand  the 
active  meaning.'  Adopting  this  we  may  translate,  "did  not  think 
the  being  on  an  equality  with  God  was  grasping,"  seizing  everything, 
the  kingdoms  of  the  world  and  the  glory  of  them,  for  himself 

For  the  construction  with  two  substantives,  of  which  one  is  predi- 
cative of  the  other,  we  may  refer  to  Philip,  iii.,  7,  8  ;  Heb.  xi.,  26  ; 
2  Peter  ii.,  13,  iii.,  15  ;  and  to  the  classical  instances  adduced  by 
Cremer  (under  dpnay/xris)  we  may  add  Lysias,  Oratio  Fimebris,  13, 
TtarpiSa  ttjv  dpETfjv  r]yij6dt.iEvoi.  For  the  sentiment  we  may  com- 
pare its  opposite  in  i  Tim.  vi.,  5,  voi.iiZ,6vtcsOv  7TOfji6).iov  eirat  rrjv 
ev6EfiEiav,  "  thinking  that  piety  was  making  gain." 

In  order  to  understand  fully  the  meaning  thus  reached,  we  must 
notice  the  words  to  eivai  i6a  Qeai,  "the  being  on  an  equality  with 
God."  "lea  is  adverbial,  and  can  hardly  be  the  same  as  i'doi.  It 
denotes,  not  to  be  absolutely  equal,  but  to  be  on  au  equality  in  certain 
respects  '^  ;  and  here  the  equality  must  be  that  which  is  involved  in 

'  See  Cremer,  Biblisch-theologisches  Worterbicch. 

"^  In  the  ivXX.  we  have,  tTvpoo6a<i  8s  /tie  I'da  rvpcp  (Job  x.,  10  ;  see 
also  xi.,  12),  and  TtpGorrfv  qiwvi]v  rrjy  ufioiav  nd6iv  i6a  uXaiGov 
(Wisdom  vii.,  3).  These  constructions,  however,  are  not  strictly 
analogous.  Theodoret  treats  the  word  as  equivalent  to  looi  through- 
out his  commentary  on  the  passage,  aud  in  other  places. 


ii.,  5-II.  PHILIPPIANS  375 

"being  in  the  form  of  God,"  that  spiritual  perfection,  as  the  Father 
is  perfect,  whicli  Jesus  sets  before  his  disciples  as  the  ideal  goal  of 
mankind.  It  is  a  question  of  the  highest  moment,  what  does  this 
equality  consist  of?  What  is  the  Divine  perfection  towards  which  we 
are  to  strive?  Is  it  selfish  grasping,  as  is  the  way  of  the  great  ones, 
"the  divine  Julius"  and  others,  who  exercise  lordship  over  the 
nations  (see  Matt,  xx.,  25,  with  the  parallels),  or  self-renouncing  and 
redeeming  love?  Here  we  have  the  thought  of  Jesus  on  the  subject  ; 
and  more  than  the  thought,  the  act,  the  realisation  of  the  Divine  in 
humanity  through  absolute  self-renunciation.  The  way  to  equality 
with  God  is  the  way  of  the  cross,  whereiu  no  self-will  obstructs  the 
working  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  it  is  the  life  of  God  which  becomes 
manifest  in  the  life  of  man.' 

"But  emptied  himself,  taking  the  form  of  a  slave,"  now  forms  a 
true  and  strong  antithesis  to  apnayuov.  Instead  of  seizing  every- 
thing for  himself,  he  kept  nothing  for  himself,  but  became  the  slave 
of  ntankind.  The  usual  explanation,  that  he  forsook  the  form  of 
God,  and  renounced  his  equality,  subverts  the  whole  sentiment  of 
the  passage,  which  finds  equality  with  God  in  the  emptying  of  self, 
the  form  of  God  in  the  form  of  the  slave,  who  dies  to  redeem  his 
brothers.  "Whosoever  will  be  first  among  you,  let  him  be  your 
slave  ;  as  the  son  of  man  came,  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to 
minister."  Jesus  was  no  less  the  Lord  of  his  disciples  when  he 
washed  their  feet  ;  and  the  sou  of  man  was  glorified,  and  God  was 
glorified  in  him,  when  the  traitor  went  forth  to  betray  him  to  his 
doom.  The  expression,  "  the  form  of  a  slave,"  is  used  because  Jesus 
was  not  literally  a  slave  :  he  lived  out  of  the  inner  spirit  of  service, 
and  his  outward  life  was  shaped  accordingly.  It  is  also  in  contrast 
with  "  the  form  of  God"  ;  he  who  was  in  the  form  of  God  came  in 
the  form  of  a  slave,— a  thing  so  contrary  to  the  ordinary  apprehen- 
sion of  men. 

"Being  made  in  the  likeness  of  men  "  is  generally  understood  of 
the  incarnation  ;  but  there  are  several  objections  to  this.  First,  it  is 
a  very  unusual  v,ay  of  expressing  the  assumption  of  human  nature  ; 
and,  in  fact,  it  does  not  express  it.     Secondly,  if  understood  of  the 

'  Origen  perceived  this.  He  says  :  "  We  must  venture  to  affirm  that 
the  goodness  of  Christ  appears  greater  and  more  Divine,  and  truly 
after  the  image  of  the  Father,  when  'he  humbled  himself  .  .  . 
than  if  he  had  supposed  that  the  being  on  an  equality  with  God  was 
dpitayi.io'i''  {Com.  in  Joan.,  tom.  i.,  37,  p.  72  Lom.). 


376  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  5-1 1. 

entrance  of  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  earthly  scene,  it  naturally  implies 
that  he  assumed  the  appearance  of  a  man,  but  was  not  really  human  ; 
and  we  have  no  reason  for  imputing  such  a  docetic  view  to  Paul. 
To  say  no  more,  the  whole  of  his  argument  founded  on  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  would  be  futile.  Thirdly,  instead  of  the  plural  "  men  "  we 
should  expect  rather  the  generic  singular.  Lastly,  this  clause  would 
properly  precede  the  one  which  it  actually  follows,  "  taking  the  form 
of  a  slave."  This  union  of  ideas  suggests  another  interpretation. 
The  word  avOpoonoi,  though  it  stands  for  the  genus  man,  is  often 
used  in  a  derogatory  sense,  and  is  thus  contrasted  with  dvi]p.  Ex- 
amples are  given  in  the  dictionaries,  but  a  few  instances  may  be 
cited  : — on  itoXXol  lukv  avQpoonoi  eiev,  oMyoi  ds  avdpsi  (Herodot., 
VII.,  210)  ;  o  TovTo  Ttojcav  ovhet^  dvrjp  idrtv,  a'AAot  dxEvocpdpo'i 
(Xen.,  Cyrop.,V<I.,  ii.,  25);  TtiSz  kyoo  dXXavroTroJXTji  (2v  dv?}p 
ysvrfdojiiat ;  (Aristoph.,  Eqtnt.,  178  sq.).  Stephauus  quotes  from 
Xenophon,  dvdpsZ  Hal  ovh  en  dvOpcoTtoi  j.i6vov  voniZ,6nEvoi.  ' H 
avQpooTtoi  is  used  of  servants,  or  women  of  ill-repute  (frequently  in 
Lysias,  e.g:,  did  TCupvr/v  uai  SovXr/v  dvQpooTfov,  De  Vuln  Prcsm.,  3). 
This  depreciating  sense  is  not  unknown  to  Paul.  To  speak  Hard 
dvfjpoonov  (Rom.  iii.,  5;  i  Cor.  ix.,  8;  Gal.  iii.,  15)  is  to  speak  in 
a  way  that  might  seem  beneath  his  own  thought  or  the  dignity  of  his 
subject.  To  "fight  with  beasts  Hard  dvOpcoTtov  "  (i  Cor.  xv.,  32) 
is  to  fight  like  any  common  man.  To  "walk  Hard  dvOpooTtov  " 
(i  Cor.  iii,.  3)  is  to  fall  below  the  level  of  one's  Christian  profession, 
and  yield  to  vulgar  human  passion  ;  and  this,  finally,  is  expressed  by 
the  question,  "are  ye  not  men?"  {id.,  4),  that  is,  do  you  not  sink 
back  into  the  common  herd?  So,  in  the  present  passage,  the  clause 
before  us  may  mean,  as  we  should  say,  "  being  made  like  one  of  the 
crowd."  And  surely  it  is  a  great  and  significant  fact,  and  one  pre- 
cisely suited  to  the  sentiment  which  Paul  is  enforcing,  that  this  man 
in  the  form  of  God  was  by  no  outward  likeness  distinguishable  from 
the  mass  of  men,  but  moved  among  them  with  Divine  simplicity,  the 
friend  and  servant  of  all. 

A  similar  explanation  will  apply  to  the  succeeding  clause,  "  being 
found  in  fashion  as  a  man."  This  use  of  the  word  "found"  is  fre- 
quent in  Paul  (see  i  Cor.  iv.,  2,  xv.,  15  ;  2  Cor.  v.,  3,  xi.,  12,  xii., 
20  ;  Gal.  ii.,  17  ;  Philip,  iii.,  9).  It  suggests  the  idea  of  an  inspection 
or  a  looking  for  :  men  looked  for  the  world's  Redeemer,  and  found 
him  in  the  garb  of  an  ordinary,  suffering  man.  '/25  dvBpooTtoi  does 
not  imply  that  he  was  not  truly  human,  but  only  wore  the  semblance 
of  a  man.     Cyril  of  Jerusalem  says,  ri/.iETi  j^iEv  vavra,  wS  dvOpoDTtot, 


ii.,  5-II.  PHIIJPPIANS  377 

.  .  .  itapayyiW.ot.iEv  {Procatechesis,  xvii.).  Nevertheless  the  clause 
as  a  whole  implies  that  the  fashion,  the  outward  appearance,  was 
different  from  what  the  common  standard  of  judgment  would  lead 
one  to  expect.  This  man,  alone  among  men  in  the  fulness  of  a 
Divine  humanity,  was  a  humble  carpenter  of  Nazareth,  by  the  great 
ones  of  the  world  despised,  to  the  high  priest  a  blasphemer,  to  the 
Roman  governor  an  innocent  but  fanatical  fool,  whose  life  was  not 
worth  considering.  But  "he  that  humbleth  himself  shall  be  exalted," 
and  to  men  of  the  deepest  soul  he  has  become  "the  power  of  God, 
and  the  wisdom  of  God."  We  must  not  look  on  the  exaltation  as  some 
external  grandeur  ccnferred  upou  him  as  a  reward,  for  this  would 
violate  the  very  lesson  which  the  passage  is  intended  to  teach.  It  is 
one  of  the  Divine  paradoxes  of  Christianity  that  humility  and  obedi- 
ence and  death  constitute  life  and  lordship  ;  and  for  Jesus  to  have 
grasped  at  the  earthly  trappings  of  power  would  have  been  to  cast 
off  "the  form  of  God,"  and  forfeit  his  spiritual  lordship  forever.  The 
"name"  which  God  "gave  unto  him  "  seems  proven  by  the  context 
to  be  "the  name  of  Jesus"  ;  but  as  this  name  was  not  first  given  to 
him  after  his  death,  the  meaning,  though  not  quite  accurately  ex- 
pressed, must  be  that  his  name  was  made  the  greatest  among  names. 
Others  think  the  name  is  "Lord." 

Doing  anything  "in  the  name  of  Jesus"  signifies,  elsewhere,  acting 
under  his  acknowledged  influence  and  leadership,  and  I  see  no  reason 
for  departing  from  the  usual  meaning  here.  (See  John  xiv.,  13,  14, 
XV.,  16,  xvi.,  23,  24,  26;  I  Cor.  v.,  4,  vi.,  11  ;  Eph.  v.,  20;  Col.  iii., 
17  ;  2  Thess.  iii.,  6.) 

Paul's  universe  is  divided  into  heaven  and  earth  and  the 
regions  under  the  earth.  The  persons  (not  "things") 
dwelling  in  these  several  parts  are  angels,  men,  and  the 
souls  of  the  departed.  The  universe  thus  conceived  is  a 
mere  speck  in  the  view  of  our  modern  knowledge,  and  the 
first  and  third  terms,  conceived  as  the  abode  of  intelligent 
beings,  have  utterly  vanished.  The  enormous  change  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  outward  scene  may  affect  our  metaphysics, 
and  must  completely  obliterate  the  pictorial  imagination 
under  which  Paul  conceived  the  history  and  destinj-  of 
man  ;  but  the  great  spiritual  lessons  of  the  Gospel  are  not 
dependent  upou  time  aud  space.     The  heavenly  courts,  with 


378  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  12-15. 

their  choirs  of  worshipping  angels,  are  gone  ;  but  I^ove  is 
still  Divine,  and  he  who  is  lowliest  in  the  service  of  mankind 
is  still  the  most  lordly  ;  and  this  confession,  which  is  truly 
made  and  felt  only  under  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit,  is  still 
to  the  glory  of  God  the  Father. 

Fidelity  to  this  great  example  is  now  enforced  in  the  Apostle's 
most  affectionate  manner  (ii.,  12-18). 

So  then  (ii.,  12),  as  a  consequence  of  what  has  just  been 
said  :  as  Christ  was  obedient  and  humble,  so  ought  you  to 
be,  and  never  murmur  against  the  will  of  God. 

Not  as  in  my  presence  only  (ii,,  12)  belongs  to  the  following 
exhortation  :  they  were  to  be  even  more  obedient  in  his 
absence  than  thej^  had  been  in  his  presence. 

For  it  is  God  which  ivorketh  in  you  (ii.,  13). — It  is  evident 
that  Paul  here  attributes  some  power  to  the  human  will. 
The  disciples  were  to  work  out  their  own  salvation  with  that 
reverent  fear  which  men  feel  when  they  undertake  some 
great  enterprise  in  which  they  may  possibly  fail.  But  they 
are  encouraged  thus  to  work  with  self-distrusting  zeal  by  the 
reflection  that  they  are  co-operating  with  God.  The  work 
is  His  ;  and  the  strength  of  will  and  hand  is  derived  from 
Him,  though  He  does  not  compel  men  to  act,  and  they  may 
refuse  to  put  forth  the  energy  which  it  is  theirs  to  give  or  to 
withhold.  God  works  in  order  to  fulfil  His  good  pleasure  in 
the  salvation  of  His  children.  As  Christ  himself  said,  it  is 
their  Father's  good  pleasure  to  give  them  the  Kingdom 
(Luke  xii.,  32). 

Murmurings  and  disputings  (ii.,  14). — Th^  connection 
shows  that  the  immediate  reference  is  to  murmuring  against 
God,  and  disputatious  reasoning  about  the  requirements  of 
His  will. 

Childj-cn  of  God  zmthout  b/onish,  etc.  (ii.,  15). — This  is  bor- 
rowed, though  not  exactly  quoted,  from  Deut.  xxxii.,  5. 

Lights  in  the  world  (ii.,   15). — The  comparison  is  to  the 


ii.,  16-20.  PHILIPPIANS  379 

heavenly  luminaries;   so  that   "the  world"  here  may  be 
used  in  its  physical  sense,  the  ordered  universe. 

That  I  may  have  (ii.,  l6)  implies  a  motive.     The  Greek 
indicates  rather  the  tendency  and  result  of  the  required 

conduct.  .  . 

If  I  am  offered  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith 
(ii"^  17).— It  is  not  easy  to  discover  any  sense  in  the  idea  of 
making  an  offering  upon  a  "  service"  or  ministration.  In- 
stead of"  upon,"  therefore,  we  must  translate  "  in  additioti 
to."  The  word  translated  "  offered  "  means  "  poured  out 
as  a  libation."  According  to  the  figure,  then,  the  Philip- 
pians  are  represented  as  ministering  priests,  who  offer  their 
faith  as  a  sacrifice  ;  and  Paul  says  that,  if  in  addition  to  this 
his  blood  is  shed  as  a  libation,  he  will  rejoice.  Others  look 
upon  Paul  himself  as  the  priest  who  offers  up  the  faith  of  the 
Philippians,  and  who,  in  addition,  is  ready  to  shed  his  blood. 
Rejoice  with  me  (ii.,  18).— Paul  rejoiced  with  the  Philip- 
pians in  the  strength  of  their  faith,  and  would  do  so  if  he 
had  even  to  die  in  the  cause  ;  so  they  should  rejoice  with 
him  that  his  labour  had  not  been  in  vain.  The  ultimate 
cause  of  rejoicing  is  the  same  in  both  cases  ;  but  by  viewing 
it  in  its  different  personal  relations  we  avoid  a  tautology. 

Paul  now  turns  to  more  personal  affairs.  He  hopes  to  send 
Timothy  to  them  soon,  and  even  to  visit  them  himself;  and  mean- 
while he  sends  Epaphroditus  (ii.,  19-30)- 

But  (ii.,  19).— Although  I  have  spoken  of  our  mutual  joy 
in  the  triumph  of  your  faith  which  I  anticipate,  still  I  want 
to  be  cheered  by  learning  all  about  ybur  affairs,  and  therefore 
I  am  hoping  to  send  Timothy  to  you.  Others  would  make 
the  word  adversative  to  the  suggested  possibility  of  his  death 
in  verse  17,  and  others  to  the  allusion  to  his  absence  in  verse 
12.  "I  also"  implies  the  expectation  that  a  visit  from 
Timothy  would  cheer  the  Philippians. 

Likcmindcd  {\\.,  20):  either,  like  me,  or,  like  Timothy,  in 


38o  PHILIPPIANS  ii.,  21-28. 

caring  for  your  interests.  Opinions  are  divided,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  the  context  to  decide  the  question  ;  but  I  think 
the  reference  to  Timothy  seems  the  more  natural,  and,  if  the 
reference  were  to  Paul,  we  should  rather  expect ' '  likeminded 
with  myself" 

They  also  seek  their  own  (ii.,  2l). — It  is  supposed  that 
Paul's  usual  companions,  and  especially  Luke,  were  away  at 
this  time.  Even  if  this  was  the  case,  the  saying  is  rather 
harsh  after  the  words  of  i.,  14.  It  may  be  that  Paul  had 
found  some  of  the  brethren  reluctant  to  undertake  a  journey 
to  Macedonia,  or  to  perform  some  other  service  which  he 
desired,  and  that  these  words  only  express  the  momentary 
disappointment  of  a  man  who  was  imprisoned  and  ready  to 
die  for  the  Gospel. 

Ye  know  (ii.,  22),  because  Timothy  had  assisted  Paul  in 
founding  the  church  at  Philippi. 

With  vie  (ii.,  22),  that  is,  along  with  me  :  they  had  both 
served  God.  The  thought  of  this  common  service  makes 
Paul  change  the  construction  with  which  he  began. 

So  S0071  as  I  shall  see  (ii.,  23). — He  wished  Timothy  to  carry 
news  of  the  trial  to  Philippi.  It  is  evident  that  Paul  ex- 
pected a  decision  soon. 

/  counted  it  necessary  (ii.,  25). — The  past  tense  in  letters 
is  often  used  in  relation  to  the  time  when  the  letters  were  to 
be  read.  It  is  probably  so  here  ;  for  see  ii.,  29.  Paul  took 
advantage  of  the  journey  of  Epaphroditus  to  send  a  letter  of 
thanks  by  his  hands. 

Fellozv-zvorker  (ix.,  25);  no  doubt  at  Philippi,  in  founding 
and  establishing  the  church. 

Sorrow  upon  sorrow  (ii.,  27),  the  sorrow  of  losing  him,  in 
addition  to  all  the  trials  of  imprisonment  :  others,  the  sorrow 
of  his  death  added  to  the  sorrow  of  his  sickness. 

Again  (ii.,  28),  according  to  Paul's  general,  though  not 
invariable,  usage  in  the  order  of  the  words,  belongs  to  "  re- 
joice,"— 3'e  may  rejoice  again  after  your  anxiety  about  me. 


ii.,  30-iii.,  2.  PHILIPPIANS  381 

The  work  of  Christ  (ii.,  30)  :  referring  to  his  journey  to 
Rome  with  the  gift  for  Paul.  To  minister  to  the  prisoner  of 
the  Lord  was  a  work  of  Christ. 

To  supply  that  ichich  ivas  lacking  (ii.,  30),  namely,  the  per- 
sonal presence  of  the  donors.  The  pleasure  of  seeing  all  his 
kind  friends  was  the  one  thing  lacking  in  their  gift,  and 
Epaphroditus  had  risked  his  life  in  coming  to  represent 
them. 

From  these  personal  details  Paul  passes  to  a  fresh  series  of  ex- 
hortations (iii.,  i-iv.,  9),  the  main  part  of  which  is  directed  against 
the  false  principles  of  certain  opponents  (iii,,  i-iv.,  i). 

Finally  (iii.,  i). — This  translation  suggests  that  Paul  in- 
tended to  close  his  letter  ;  but  the  Greek  word  ("  for  the 
rest,"  "  as  for  what  remains  ")  does  not  imply  a  speedy  end. 
lu  iv.,  8,  it  is  prefixed  to  a  closing  exhortation  ;  but  in  i 
Thess.  iv.,  i,  and  2  Thess.  iii.,  i,  it  serves  to  introduce  a  new 
subject.  This  seems  to  be  its  purpose  here,  so  that  we  need 
not  regard  this  clause  as  the  end  of  the  previous  subject.  To 
do  so  makes  the  transition  very  abrupt  ;  and  the  exhorta- 
tion to  "  rejoice  in  the  Lord  "  is  fitly  prefixed  to  a  warning 
against  the  false  confidence  of  dangerous  enemies.  Compare 
i.,  18,  25,  26,  and  ii.,  17,  18. 

To  xvrite  the  same  things  (iii.,  l). — This  can  hardly  refer  to 
the  word  "  rejoice,"  even  though  the  note  of  joy  recurs  so 
often  in  the  Epistle  ;  for  the  succeeding  words  are  inapplica- 
ble to  this,  and  point  clearly  enough  to  the  warning  which 
follows.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  see  here  an  allusion  to  a  lost 
Epistle,  in  which  the  same  subject  was  treated. 

Beware  of  the  dogs  (iii.,  2). — "  Beware  of"  is  hardly  a  cor- 
rect translation,  the  Greek  being  simply  "see"  or  "ob- 
serve," or  perhaps  indicative,  "you  see";  so  that  it 
contains  a  warning  only  by  implication.  The  article  shows 
that  "  the  dogs  "  are  a  definite  class.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  threefold  description  points  to  three  classes,  Gentiles, 
judaising  Christians,  and  unconverted  Jews,  or  only  to  one  ; 


382  PHILIPPIANS  iii.,  3-5. 

and,  if  the  latter,  whether  that  one  consists  of  Jewish  ene- 
mies or  of  Judaisers  within  the  church.  Against  the  latter 
Paul  was  quite  capable  of  using  strong  language  ;  but  there 
is  no  other  indication  of  the  presence  of  Judaisers  in  Philippi, 
and  the  whole  paragraph  seems  rather  to  point  to  men  who 
made  no  pretence  of  being  followers  of  Christ.  Jews  might 
very  well  exert  a  dangerous  influence  on  the  church  by 
representing  themselves  as  the  orthodox  people  of  God  in 
opposition  to  an  upstart  heretic  like  Paul.  They  had  in 
their  favour  all  the  weight  of  a  venerable  antiquity,  and  an 
interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  which  was  supported  by 
all  their  greatest  authorities.  How  easy  it  must  have  been 
to  represent  Paul  as  preaching  a  spurious  Judaism. 

We  at'e  the  circumcision  (iii.,  3). — "  We  "  naturally  means 
Christians  as  a  body,  in  opposition  to  Jews.  They  had 
the  true  spiritual  circumcision  (see  Rom.  ii.,  29),  and  were 
the  genuine  children  of  Abraham,  the  man  of  faith  ;  but  the 
literal  Jewish  rite  is  contemptuously  described  as  a  mere 
"  concession."  So  the  true  "  worship,"  of  which  the  Jews 
boasted  (see  Rom.  ix.,  4),  was  not  the  service  of  the  Temple, 
but  worship  by  the  Spirit  of  God.     Compare  John  iv.,  21-24. 

I  myself  might  have  confidence  (iii.,  4). — The  Greek  has  no 
"  myself"  and  no  "  might."  "  I  "  is  emphatic  in  contrast 
with  the  Gentile  Philippians.  Paul  does  not  say  that  he  had 
no  confidence  in  the  flesh,  but  that,  though  Christians  as 
such  had  none,  he  personally  had  confidence  in  the  flesh 
also,  that  is,  as  well  as  in  Christ  ;  but  such  confidence  he  re- 
garded as  of  no  value.  As  a  fact  he  had  every  extraneous 
advantage  of  which  the  strictest  Jew  could  boast. 

A  Hebrezo  of  Hebreivs  (iii.,  5),  that  is,  sprung  from  Hebrew 
parents.  This  implies  more  than  belonging  to  the  stock  of 
Israel,  the  theocratic  people,  for  this  stock  included  Hellen- 
istic Jews  who  could  speak  Greek  only.  Paul,  though  born 
at  Tarsus,  was  brought  up  in  Jerusalem,  and  reckons  himself 
as  a  member  of  the  Hebrew  section. 


iii.,  6-9.  PHILIPPIANS  3S3 

The  rig-hfeo7is7icss  which  is  in  the  Laze  (iii.,  6). — This  state- 
ment is  not  inconsistent  with  Paul's  general  doctrine.  He  is 
speaking  from  the  point  of  view  of  his  opponents,  and  says 
in  effect  that  he  had  been  a  strict  observer  of  the  Law.  He 
had  all  the  righteousness  which  the  Law  could  suppl}-,  and 
of  which  a  Pharisee  could  boast,  a  scrupulons  attention  to 
external  requirements.  There  is  no  occasion  to  limit  the 
reference  to  the  ceremonial  law;  for  Paul  does  not  distinguish 
the  moral  and  the  ceremonial  law,  and  moralit}^  may  be  as 
external  as  ritual. 

Loss  for  Christ  (iii.,  7). — "  For"  here,  and  twice  in  the 
following  verse,  is  "  on  account  of,"  and  differs  from  "  on 
behalf  of,"  denoting  rather  the  consequence  of  his  Christian 
position. 

I  count  (iii.,  8)  ;  that  is,  I  not  only  have  counted,  but  I 
continue  to  count  ;  so  that  "  all  things  "  may  refer  only  to 
the  advantages  just  enumerated. 

My  Lord  (iii.,  8),  an  expression  of  his  personal  feeling. 
He  was  so  filled  with  a  sense  of  the  spiritual  lordship  of 
Christ,  that  his  old  life  under  the  Law  seemed  to  be  quite 
contemptible  in  comparison  WMth  the  new  life  in  him. 

Be  found  in  him  (iii.,  9). — It  was  his  desire  that,  having 
been  lost  to  the  Law,  he  might,  when  looked  for,  be  found  in 
Christ.  It  was  still  his  aspiration  to  gain  him  more  com- 
pletel3%  and  be  more  intimately  united  with  him. 

A  righteousness  of  mine  own  (iii.,  9). — I  am  luiable  to  see 
how  the  Greek  can  bear  any  translation  but  that  which  is 
given  in  the  margin,  "  not  having  as  my  righteousness  that 
which  is  of  the  Law."  He  is  not  here  contrasting  man's 
false  or  imperfect  righteousness  with  the  true  righteousness 
of  God,  as  in  Rom.  x.,  3  (where  "  their  own  "  is  quite  difFer- 
entl}'  expressed),  but  legal  with  .spiritual  righteousness.  He 
had  had  the  former  ;  he  sought  the  latter.  The  latter  came 
"  through  Christ's  faith,"  "  in  "  being  in  the  Greek  simply 
"of":  see  the  note  on  Rom.  iii.,   22.     It  proceeded  from 


3§4  PHILIPPIANS  iii.,  IO-14. 

God  ("  of"  being  literally  "  outof  "),  and  rested  upon  faith, 
that  being  the  link  with  God  which  drew  man  up  into  the 
fulness  of  Divine  communion,  and  enabled  him  to  appropriate 
the  Spirit  of  holiness  and  love,  which  is  true  righteousness. 

The  power  of  his  resiirrection  (iii.,  lO)  :  the  power  belong- 
ing to  or  inherent  in  his  resurrection,  which  was  a  triumph 
of  life  over  death.  Paul  wishes  to  experience  the  power  of 
the  risen  and  eternal  life  in  his  own  heart.  This  would  be 
followed  by  acquaintance  with  the  fellowship  of  Christ's 
sufferings  ;  for  this  life  is  opposed  to  the  life  of  the  world, 
and  persecuted  by  it.  So  he  would  be  "  conformed  unto  " 
Christ's  "  death,"  not  by  dying  in  the  same  wa)^  but  by  en- 
tering into  the  spiritual  essence  of  that  sacrifice  of  love. 

Attain  loito  the  resurrection  from  the  dead  (iii.,  II). — The 
doubt  which  is  here  expressed  is  only  the  utterance  of  that 
humility  which  springs  from  aiming  at  transcendent  ideals, 
and  is  no  stronger  than  that  which  we  find  in  i  Cor.  ix.,  27. 
The  words  seem  to  imply  that  the  resurrection  of  men  is  con- 
ditional ;  but  this  would  be  contrary  to  Paul's  teaching  else- 
where (see  especially  Rom.  ii.,  2  sqq.;  2  Cor.  v.,  10),  and  it 
accords  with  the  general  tenor  of  the  passage  if  we  under- 
stand "  the  resurrection  "  here  in  a  special  and  exalted  sense. 
This  may  perhaps  explain  the  use  of  a  word  for  "  resurrec- 
tion "  which  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament. 

I  press  on  (iii.,  12)  :  rather,  "  I  pursue"  the  ideal  ends 
already  spoken  of,  "  if  I  may  also"  overtake  and  catch  that 
for  which  I  was  caught. 

One  thing  I  do  (iii,,  13). — The  figure  is  now  drawn  from  a 
foot-race,  in  which  the  ruiniers  strain  forward,  and  have  no 
time  to  think  of  anything  they  have  left  behind.  The  best 
life  is  found  neither  in  regret  for  the  failings  nor  in  self-satis- 
faction with  the  attainments  of  the  past,  but  in  yielding  to 
the  attraction  of  that  which  is  still  beyond  us. 

The  prize  of  the  high  calling  (iii.,  1 4). — This  cannot  mean 
that  the  calling  is  the  prize  ;  for  that  would  imply  that  Paul 


iii.,  15,  16.  PHILIPPIANS  385 

had  not  been  already  called,  and  that  it  was  possible  for  men 
to  win  the  calling  for  themselves.  The  prize,  therefore,  is 
that  which  belongs  to  the  calling.  Men  are  invited  to  the 
spiritual  race,  and  God  is  always  calling  them  upward.  For 
the  Roman  world  of  that  time,  for  the  Christian  di.sciple 
always,  this  call  is  given  and  takes  shape  in  "  Christ  Jesus." 
Perfect  (iii.,  15)  must  here  have  rather  a  diflFerent  significa- 
tion from  that  which  it  bears  in  verse  12.  There  it  refers  to 
the  complete  realisation  of  his  ideal  ;  here  to  the  full  appre- 
hension of  the  ideal  itself.  We  need  not  limit  it  to  the  do- 
main either  of  morals  or  of  thought  ;  for  Christianity,  as  a 
form  of  spiritual  life,  belongs  to  both. 

Thus  minded  (iii.,  15) ;  have  that  character  of  thought  and 
disposition  which  has  been  spoken  of  from  verse  7. 

Other2visc  minded  (iii.,  15),  implying  that  there  may  be 
some  point  where  the  spiritual  vision  is  still  defective.  On 
any  such  point  further  revelation  may  be  expected,  with 
growing  experience  and  insight.  Paul  does  not  limit  Divine 
revelation  to  any  cho.sen  band.  It  was  not  miraculous  and 
exceptional,  but  open  to  every  sincere  believer. 

By  that  same  rule  (iii.,  16).—"  Rule  "  is  properly  supplied 
to  complete  the  sense,  and  the  word  is  actually  found  in 
many  manuscripts,  though  not  in  the  best.  "That"  has 
nothing  answering  to  it  in  the  Greek,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
see  to  what  it  refers.  The  sense  seems  to  be,— we  may  not 
agree  upon  every  point,  for  some  have  got  farther  in  the 
spiritual  life  than  others  ;  but  so  far  as  we  have  attained,  let 
us  follow  the  same  rule. 

Here  the  subject  started  by  the. warning  against  "the 
dogs  "  conies  to  a  natural  close,  and  the  connection  does  not 
oblige  us  to  recognise  the  same  men  in  "  the  enemies  of  the 
cross,"  of  whom  he  is  about  to  speak.  What  he  has  just 
said  reminds  him  of  some  within  the  Church  who  made  a 
false  profession,  and  did  not  follow  the  Christian  rule.  They 
are  clearly  men  whose  enmity  to  the  cross  was  not  open  and 


386  PHILIPPIANS  iii.,  18-20. 

avowed,  as  was  that  of  the  Jews  ;  for  Paul  had  repeated!}^  to 
warn  the  Philippians  that  they  really  were  enemies.  Nor 
can  the  reference  very  well  be  to  Judaisers,  who,  though 
\\\Q.y  were  narrow  and  unscrupulous  in  their  bigotrj^,  were 
probably  men  of  strict  and  pure  lives  ;  and  if  it  be  said  that 
the  words  "  whose  god  is  their  belly,  and  whose  glory  is  in 
their  shame,"  refer  to  rules  about  meats  and  to  circumcision, 
a  bitter  irony  is  introduced,  which  is  not  indeed  un-Pauline, 
but  is  inconsistent  with  the  tone  of  the  passage.  I  think, 
therefore,  that  the  allusion  must  be  to  members  of  the  Church 
who  had  joined  it  from  selfish  motives,  and  with  no  appreci- 
ation of  the  real  character  of  the  new  movement,  seeming 
friends  who  were,  in  principle,  quite  opposed  to  the  self-re- 
nunciation of  the  cross.  Against  such  men  a  frequent  warn- 
ing was  necessary,  and  in  contrast  with  them  Paul  may 
without  conceit  appeal  to  the  example  of  himself  and  his 
companions. 

Weeping  (iii.,  18). — Much  is  implied  by  this  one  word, — 
his  profound  regard  for  all  that  was  signified  by  the  cross, 
his  sorrow  for  men  who  could  degrade  themselves  b)?^  a 
sensual  and  worldly  life,  his  sensitive  nature,  alwa5^s  easily 
moved,  and  now  perhaps  with  weakened  nerves  and  dimin- 
ished self-command  owing  to  his  long  imprisonment. 

Perdition  (iii.,  19). — The  character  of  this  is  not  defined, 
and  we  may  understand  it  generally  of  moral  ruin,  and  the 
loss  of  blessedness  which  that  involves. 

For  our  citizenship  is  in  lieavcn  (iii.,  20). — These  men  are 
doomed  to  perdition,  and  we  must  guard  against  them,  be- 
cause their  principles  are  directly  opposed  to  those  of  the 
Christian  commonwealth  :  their  thoughts  are  earth  1}^;  those 
of  the  Christian  must  be  heavenl5\ 

A  Saviour  (iii.,  20). — This  is  predicative,  and  it  might  be 
better  to  translate,  "  We  wait  for  Christ  as  a  saviour."  This 
epithet  is  not  applied  to  Christ  in  the  great  Epistles  of  Paul  ; 
and  in  the  whole  Pauline  group  it  is  found  only  in  Kph.  v., 


lii.,  2i-iv.,  I.  PHILIPPIANS  387 

23;  2  Tim.  i.,  10;  Tit.  i.,  4,  ii.,  13,  iii.,  6.  He  naturally 
uses  it  as  the  sorrows  of  the  world  thicken  around  him,  and 
it  seems  as  though  the  great  deliverance  must  at  last  lie 
close  at  hand. 

The  body  of  our  liH})iiliation  (iii.,  21),  the  body  which  be- 
longs to  our  lowl}^  earthly  condition.  Paul  expected  this  to 
be  changed  into  a  spiritual  body  at  the  time  of  the  .second 
advent  (see  i  Cor.  xv.,  51,  52J.  The  words  here  used  hardly 
imply  his  expectation  of  surviving  till  that  time  ;  for  the 
change  was  to  be  effected  in  the  bodies  of  the  dead  as  well 
as  the  living. 

To  subject  all  ihiiigs  unto  himself  {\\\.^  2l). — We  scarcely 
reach  the  depth  of  this  thought  if  we  understand  it  merely 
of  a  personal  ability.  It  involves  the  power  of  the  spiritual 
to  subjugate  and  mould  the  material  ;  and  accordingly  those 
who  are  unable  to  accept  in  the  letter  Paul's  doctrine  of  the 
second  coming  and  of  the  transformed  body  may  still  receive 
it  in  the  spirit. 

Wherefore  (iv.,  I). — This  verse  forms  a  conclusion  to  the 
foregoing  exhortations.  With  such  grand  hopes  the  brethren 
should  stand  fast.  Paul  addresses  them  in  words  of  the 
strongest  affection.  Their  kindly  remembrance  of  him 
brought  joy  to  his  heart,  and  their  steadfastness  made  them, 
as  it  were,  his  victor's  wreath  in  his  apo.stolic  contests. 

Leaving  these  general  admonitions,  Paul  now  addresses  himself 
to  individuals  (iv.,  2,  3). 

We  know  nothing  of  Euodias  and  Syntyche  beyond  what  is 
here  stated.  They  had  helped  Paul  in  the  work  of  the  Gospel, 
probably  in  founding  the  church  at  t'hilippi,  of  which  we  may 
presume  they  were  now  prominent  members.  Of  the  source 
and  nature  of  their  differences  with  one  another  we  are  quite 
ignorant  ;  but  we  may  infer  from  the  style  of  the  exhortation 
that  the}'  were  of  a  personal  kind,  and  showed  some  want  of 
temper.  "  In  the  Lord,"  in  his  loving  spirit,  such  differ- 
ences disappear. 


388  PHILIPPIANS  iv.,  3-7. 

Yoke- fellow  (iv.,  3),  probably  a  proper  name,  Synz5^gus, 
which  means  a  yoke-fellow.  Hence  the  epithet  "  true  "  or 
"  genuine,"  the  character  answering  to  the  name.  The 
name  is  not  found  elsewhere  ;  but  if  it  is  not  a  proper  name, 
the  description  seems  hardly  sufficient  to  point  out  any  par- 
ticular person.  As  Synzygus  was  to  help  the  women  to  get 
over  their  differences,  it  is  possible  that  Paul,  in  playing 
upon  the  word,  takes  it  in  an  unusual  sense,  "  one  who 
yokes  together."  ' 

CIc77icnt  also  (iv.,  3). — It  seems  best  to  connect  these  words 
with  "  laboured,"  not  with  "  helped  "  ;  for  a  reason  for  help- 
ing them  is  that  they  had  formerly  worked  cordially  with 
others.  It  is  evident  that  Clement  was  a  member  of  the 
church  at  Philippi.  We  cannot  identify  him  with  any  other 
known  Clement. 

The  book  of  life  (iv.,  3),  a  figure  borrowed  from  a  register 
of  citizens.  These  were  all  genuine  members  of  the  Christ- 
ian commonwealth. 

The  exhortation  is  now  once  more  made  general,  but  is  founded 
on  the  admonition  just  given  (iv.,  4-9). 

Joy  of  a  spiritual  kind  banishes  discontent,  and  with  it  the 
inclination  to  insist  on  our  personal  claims.  It  is  closely 
connected  with  the  "  sweet  reasonableness"  here  described 
as  "  forbearance."  The  return  of  Christ  was  close  at  hand, 
and  this  solemn  thought  ought  to  fill  the  mind  with  joy,  and 
dispel  all  self-seeking  and  anxiety. 

The  peace  of  God  (iv.,  7),  the  peace  which  dwells  within 
the  bosom  of  God,  a  peace  deeper  than  all  thought,  but  of 
which  man  participates  through  the  communion  of  prayer. 
"  In  Christ  Jesus  "  denotes,  as  so  constantly  with  Paul,  the 
spiritual  realm  within  which  this  takes  place.  That  peculiar 
quality  of  life  was  seen  nowhere  else.     Christ  was,  as  it  were, 

'  See  Lipsius ;  but  the  possibility  of  understanding  it  so  occurred  to 
me  independently. 


iv.,  8-10.  PHIIJPPIANS  2:^^ 

the  atmosphere  in  which  the  disciples  lived  and  breathed, 
and  found  the  Divine  peace. 

Finally  (iv.,  8). — This  and  the  following  verse  sum  up  and 
conclude  his  exhortations.  Here,  as  everywhere,  his  great 
concern  is  a  moral  and  spiritual  behaviour  corresponding  to 
the  new  life  of  sonship  whicli  had  been  given  to  the  world 
in  Christ. 

True  (iv.,  8),  referring  (if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  con- 
nection), not  to  truth  of  opinion,  but  to  truth  of  life,  the  deed 
corresponding  to  the  pure  and  health}'  thought. 

Honourable  (iv.,  8)  ;  that  is,  worthy  of  honour  or  venera- 
tion. 

In  me  (iv.,  9). — These  words  must  be  connected  only  with 
"  heard  and  saw  "  :  Paul  set  an  example  of  the  things  which 
he  taught  and  delivered  to  others. 

The  God  of  peace  (iv.,  9).— The  thought  of  verse  7  is  re- 
sumed, though  differently  expressed,  and  indeed  carried 
farther.  Not  only  peace,  but  God  Himself,  whose  it  is,  will 
be  with  them. 

Before  closing  his  letter,  Paul  returns  thanks  for  the  gift  (of 
money)  which  the  Philippians  had  sent  him  (iv,,  10-20). 

The  delicate  and  gracious  character  of  his  words  has  been 
generally  recognised,  and  it  is  only  through  a  misinterpreta- 
tion that  one  can  find  them  ungracious.  We  know  Paul's 
independent  spirit,  and  his  unwillingness  to  receive  anything 
that  could  give  an  appearance  of  self-interest  to  his  work. 
But  he  was  not  too  proud  to  accept  a  gift  offered  in  love. 
He  did  not,  indeed,  need  it,  and  did  not  wish  his  friends  to 
tax  themselves  for  him  ;  but  he  deeply  valued  their  sym- 
pathy, and  saw  in  their  contribution  from  their  humble 
means  a  sacrifice  acceptable  to  God. 

Ye  have  revived  your  thought  (iv.,  lO). — So  translated,  the 
words  certainly  seem  to  convej^  some  reproach.  But  they 
mean  literally,  "  You  caused  to  sprout  again  your  thought 


39° 


PHILIPPIANS  iv.,  II-18. 


for  me."  The  idea  apparently  is,  that  long  ago  they  had 
shown  their  regard  for  him  in  this  practical  way;  they  had 
always  been  thinking  of  him,  and  anxious  to  send  him  a  gift, 
but  through  some  want  of  opportunity  were  unable  to  do 
so  ;  and  he  w^as  glad  for  their  sakes  as  well  as  his  own  that 
they  were  at  length  able  to  turn  their  thought  into  action. 

Not  that  I  speak  in  respect  of  want  (iv.,  II). — Lest  the  pre- 
vious words  should  be  misunderstood  he  adds,  in  effect,  "  I 
do  not  mean  that  I  was  in  any  want." 

Content  (iv.,  Il)  :  properly,  "  self-sufficing,"  a  Stoical 
word  found  only  here  in  the  New  Testament,  though  the 
noun  occurs  in  2  Cor.  ix.,  8  ;   i  Tim.  vi.,  6. 

To  be  abased  (iv.,  12),  or,  to  be  humbled,  that  is,  in  this 
connection,  to  have  the  humiliation  attaching  to  want. 

Learned  the  seeret  (iv.,  12),  literally,  "  been  initiated,"  a 
figure  borrowed  from  the  mysteries. 

In  him  (iv.,  13). — Though  the  reading  "  Christ"  is  not 
supported  by  the  best  authorities,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that 
the  reference  is  to  him,  "  in  Christ  "  being  such  a  common 
expression. 

Ye  did  zvell  (iv.,  14)  is  hardly  strong  enough  :  rather,  ye 
did  a  fine,  or  beautiful,  thing.  The  Philippians  did  not  send 
Paul  what  cost  them  nothing,  but  in  denying  themselves  for 
his  sake  entered  into  fellowship  with  his  affliction. 

Ye  yourselves  also  know  (iv.,  15)  :  ye,  as  well  as  I,  can  re- 
member that  this  is  not  the  first  time  your  generosity  has 
been  shown.  When  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  in  their 
country,  some  ten  years  earlier,  they  alone  sent  him  presents. 

In  Thessalonica  (iv.,  16),  where,  as  in  Corinth,  Paul 
worked  for  his  own  support  (i  Thess.  ii.,  9). 

I  seek  for  the  fruit  (iv.,  17)  ;  that  is,  the  fruit  of  spiritual 
character  in  themselves,  which  will  grow  from  their  generous 
deed. 

/  have  all  things  (iv.,  18)  :  I  value  most  the  spiritual,  not 
the  material,  side  of  a  gift  ;  and  now  I  have  everything  I 


iv.,  18-23.  PHILIPPIANS  391 

want,  and  am  quite  full,  so  that  you  need  not  tax  yourselves 
any  further  on  my  account. 

An  odour  of  a  sweet  smell  (iv.,  18). — Observe  how  readily 
the  figure  of  sacrifice  is  used,  though  this  language  carries 
us  back  to  the  time  when  the  gods  were  supposed  to  enjo}' 
the  savour  of  victims.  When  Paul  wrote,  sacrifices  were  still 
an  essential  part  of  worship,  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  as 
well  as  among  heathen  nations. 

In  glory  (iv.,  19). — Connect  with  "shall  fulfil."  The 
expression  is  probably  to  be  understood  adverbially. 

The  Epistle  closes  with  greetings  and  a  benediction  (iv.,  21-23). 

Salute  (iv.,  2l). — The  direction  is  given,  we  must  suppose, 
to  the  leaders  (perhaps  the  "  bishops  and  deacons  "  of  i.,  i) 
to  whom  the  letter  would  be  delivered.  He  names  no  one, 
as  he  wishes  "every  saint"  individually  to  receive  his 
greeting. 

The  brethren  which  are  with  me  (iv.,  21 ). — This  must  refer 
to  Paul's  companions  in  travel,  some  of  whom,  therefore, 
must  have  been  with  him,  in  spite  of  ii.,  20. 

They  that  are  of  Cccsar' s  household  {yj.^  22),  probably  slaves 
belonging  to  the  imperial  establishment.  Wh}-  the}'-  espe- 
cially sent  their  salutations  we  do  not  know. 

Be  with yoicr  spirit  (iv.,  23). — This  reading  is  the  best  at- 
tested, instead  of"  with  you  all."  Thus  this  beautiful  and 
affectionate  Epistle  closes  with  almost  the  same  words  as  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  which  reveals  such  a  different  phase 
of  the  Apostle's  mind. 


"A  nobly  attractive  book." 

DA  III  ^^^    MAN3    THE    MISSION- 

rnULi      ARY,   AND    THE    TEACHER 

By  ORELLO  cone,   D.D.  Cloth,  gilt  top,  $2.00 

CHIEF  CONTENTS  — PART  I.  The  IMax:  i.  Formative 
Influences;  2.  Personal  Traits;  3.  The  Conversion.  PART 
II.  The  Missionary:  i.  The  First  Years — Galatia  and  the 
Gal.vtian  Epistle;  2  Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Corinth;  3. 
Ephesus — Rome;  4.  The  Paul  ok  the  Acts  and  the  Paul  of 
the  Epistles.  PART  III.  The  Teacher:  i.  The  Law;  2. 
"Life,"  "Death,"  and  "Salvation;"  3.  Doctrine  of  Sin;  4. 
Salvation — Atonement;  5.  Person  of  Christ;  6.  Supernatu- 
ralism;  7.  Faith  and  Justification;  8.  Ethics;  9.  Predestina- 
tion;  10.  The  Church  and  the  Sacraments;   ii.  Esch.-vtology. 

"An  exposition  of  Paul  as  he  was." 

— Dr.  Thos.  R.  Slicer  in  77/6'  JVeic  JVor/d. 

"Among  the  many  treatises  on  Paulinism  published  of 
recent  years,  this  book  takes  a  \\\\:([\  jilace.  In  the  present 
writers  judgment  it  surpasses  all  others  written  in  Enff= 
lish  in  acumen  and  vigor.  ...  A  special  merit  of  the 
presentation  of  Paul's  ideas  is  the  fulness  and  lucidity 
with  which  the  subtle  and  mystical  elements  of  his  thought 
are  stated.  Dr.  Cone's  style  .  .  .  has  a  sinewy  vigor 
which  makes  his  book  easy  reading  throughout." 

— Prof.  E.  Y.  Hincks  of  Andover  in  7'he  Church. 

"As  an  exhaustive  and  luminous  account  of  the  life  and 
work  of  Paul  as  a  missionary  to  the  gentiles  and  as  a 
teacher,  it  stands  unrivalled.  Part  III  is  a  masterly  expo- 
sition of  the  apostle's  thought  which  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired. " —  TJie  Aberdeen  Joiirtial. 

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more  creditable  work  than  this." — The  Christian  Register. 

"A  standard  work  .  .  .  will  for  a  long 
time  constitute  the  jioint  of  departure  for  all 
stutlies  of  Paul  that  are  to  be  taken  seriously." 

— Prof.  H,  Holtz.mann,   University  of  Strasshurg. 

[over] 


Paul,  the  Man,  tJic  Missionary,  and  tJic  Teacher 


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stirred  within  us  by  any  critical  production.  .  .  .  We  have 
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tude in  the  writings  of  Canon  Liddon  .  .  .  reporting  with 
almost  incredible  accuracy  the  height  and  depth  and  length 
and  breadth  of  that  spiritual  Paulinism  which  has  of  late 
years  suffered  so  many  things  in  the  house  of  its  friends." 
— President  Chas.  Cuthbert  Hall  in  The  Expositor. 

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"The  work  is  one  of  great  ability  and  extensive  learning, 
evincing  much  acumen  and  exegetical  power." 

—  The  Edinburgh  Scotsman. 

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"A  solid  work  of  permanent  scientific  value." 

— Dr.  O.  Pfleiderer,   University  of  Berlin. 

"He  writes  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  accomplished 
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Service  of  the  Reformation.  By  Ei'HRAlM  Emerton,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Harvard  University. 

4.— THEODORE  BEZA,  the  Counsellor  of  the  French  Reformation. 
By  Henry  Martyn  Baird,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  Greek  Language 
and  Literature,  New  York  University;  author  of  "The  Huguenots," 
6  vols. 

For  titles  of  volumes  in  preparation,  write  for  separate  descriptive  circular. 


THE  AMERICAN  LECTURES  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF 
RELIGIONS. 

Each,   8%  $r   50. 

I.— BUDDHISM:  ITS  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE.     By  T.  W. 

Rhys-Davids,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Chairman  of  the  Pali  Text  Society; 
Secretary  and  Librarian  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  ;  Professor  of 
Pali  and  Buddhist  Literature  at  University  College,  London. 

2.— RELIGIONS  OF  PRIMITIVE  PEOPLES.  By  Daniel  G.  Brin- 
TON,  A.M.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc,  Professor  of  Archeology  and 
Linguistics  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

3.— JEWISH  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AFTER  THE  EXILE.      By  T.  K. 

Cheyne,  of  University  of  Oxford. 

4.— THE    RELIGION    OF    ISRAEL  TO   THE   EXILE.      By  Karl 

BuDDE,  of  the  University  of  Strasburg,  Germany. 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS,  New  York  and  London. 


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